Taiwan enjoys a high degree of religious freedoms, and as a result, many religious movements have flourished, primarily Taoism and Buddhism. How have these and other mainstream religions developed over time?
"I visit temples in the hope of improving my luck," says Yu Chun-po, a Taipei resident who went to temples twice last year when things were not going well in his life. "I don't know whether they were Buddhist or Taoist temples. Actually, I don't really care. That's not important." Yu is not alone in being unable to differentiate between the two religions. "Generally, people don't distinguish Buddhism from Taoism," notes Huang Ching-sheng, chief of the Religious Affairs Section at the Ministry of the Interior's (MOI) Department of Civil Affairs. "Some temples even have deities from both religions, such as the Lungshan Temple in Taipei."
Chinese societies are perhaps more influenced by Taoism than by any other religion due in part to its longstanding history. The movement, led by Chang Tao-ling, dates back to the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220) and is the oldest religion created by the Chinese. Over time, however, many people began worshipping deities without knowing they were within the family of Taoist gods. There is also much overlap among the various deities as many also belong to a category of folk religions. The lines are so blurred that some worshippers consider themselves followers of a certain god rather than Taoism, while others mistakenly claim they are Buddhists because they visit temples and worship while holding incense.
The confusion lies in the lack of organization within Taoism. "In comparison, Buddhist organizations are more active and get more exposure in the mass media, so Taiwanese are less conscious of Taoist influences," notes Lee Fong-mao, a research fellow at the Institute of Chinese Literature and Philosophy of Academia Sinica. Perhaps because of its pantheistic tendency, there were over 8,500 Taoist temples registered in Taiwan during the year 2000, compared with only 4,000 Buddhist ones. "The number of Taoist deities continues to increase as more gods, big and small, are added to this category," Lee notes. "Most of them have been included because of their contribution to society." Matsu, for example, is the patron saint of seafarers and is perhaps the island's most widely worshipped deity. Also popular is Kuan Yu, a famous warrior from the Three Kingdoms period in the third century.
Another well-known religion in Taiwan is I-kuan Tao, or the Religion of One Unity. It originated in Shandong Province in northern China during the late Ching Dynasty (1644-1911) and was introduced to the island in 1945 following Taiwan's liberation from Japanese colonial rule. I-kuan Tao shares some of the underlying principles of Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, Christianity, and Islam, notes Hsiao Chia-chen, deputy secretary-general of the Taipei-based ROC I-kuan Tao Association. "Good concepts should be shared by all people, regardless of which religion they come from," he adds. Today, there are about 800,000 devotees of I-kuan Tao in Taiwan.
Christianity also plays a significant role in the island's religious community. The Presbyterian Church has had a presence here prior to 1949 when the Christians were driven from the mainland, notes Chen Chi-rong, chairman of the Department of Religion at Aletheia University. "A large number of Christian priests belonging to different denominations from all over the mainland moved to the island at that time. Taiwan suddenly became home to many different Christian denominations," Chen says. "It was quite an unusual situation." For a variety of reasons, such as a lack of financial support, some denominations later vanished from the island. According to the MOI, there are close to 900,000 followers of Christianity in Taiwan today, accounting for 8.3 percent of the religious population, with Protestants outnumbering Catholics 593,000 to 304,000.
Although popular in the West, Christianity is not as widespread in Taiwan. "The major impediment to its development is that it forbids its followers to perform rites in honor of their ancestors," Chen observes. "This is quite important to Chinese people, but it's considered a pagan ritual among Christians." While the Catholic Church has allowed its followers to perform such rites, the Protestant Church still considers this tradition taboo, although it has begun to discuss the issue in recent years. "Another reason why Christianity isn't compatible with the local culture is the perception that it's a prophetic religion," notes Chang Chun-shen, a Catholic priest at the Seminary of Fu Jen Catholic University. "It asks people to follow and accept the words of God. But what they want is the wisdom to help them get through everyday life."
Chang believes that Christians are working to make their religion appear less prophetic and more appealing. They might take a cue from emerging Protestant denominations like the Ling Leung Church. "Their followers are more willing to go to church than those from traditional churches, including the Catholic Church," he notes. Aletheia University's Chen Chi-rong has noticed this trend as well. He remarks that some comparatively new churches are more independent and popular among the younger generation. "Unlike traditional churches, they inject liveliness into church activities. For example, live music is played during the singing of hymns," Chen notes. To keep up with today's trends, the Presbyterian Church has followed suit in this regard and it continues to be the largest Protestant denomination on the island with about 420,000 members, including former President Lee Teng-hui.
As with any other democracy, Taiwan is proud of its religious freedoms, a fundamental right of all ROC citizens. To date, seventeen religions have registered with the Civil Affairs Department of the MOI. The island was not always a haven for religious development. During Japanese colonialism (1895-1945), the government systematically attempted to suppress Taoism as it was considered a form of Chinese patriotism. To avoid persecution, many Taoist temples registered under a Buddhist guise and held certain Buddhist ceremonies to keep up the pretense. After 1945 these temples returned to their true Taoist practices. Meanwhile, during the civil war between the Kuomintang and Chinese Communists, a large number of Taoist priests moved to Taiwan, including Chang En-pu. He established a Taoist fellowship on the island in 1950 and since then, Taoism has been an organized religion in Taiwan.
A more recent example of religious repression can be found in the history of I-kuan Tao. Like many people with religious beliefs escaping from the Chinese mainland, a group of I-kuan Tao followers moved to Taiwan around 1949. Fear of Communist infiltration was strong at the time, and the government began to grow suspicious of the sect as its rituals were not open to the public. An official ban on all I-kuan Tao activities was announced in 1953. The government and the mass media it controlled launched a smear campaign against the group and denounced it as evil and immoral, according to Hsiao Chia -chen, who was detained for five days in the 1970s for taking part in an I-kuan Tao event. Some of the misinformation spread about the religious sect was that its believers had to worship in the nude.
"The harsher the crackdown, the more determined I was in sticking to my belief," Hsiao notes, adding that I-kuan Tao managed to survive in such an oppressive atmosphere. Leaders, seeking to keep the religion alive, began promoting it abroad. And during a period of liberalization, the government lifted its ban on I-kuan Tao in 1987, the same year martial law was abolished. "I-kuan Tao had been oppressed for many years, but I don't bear any grudges against the government," Hsiao adds. Interestingly, other emerging religions consider I-kuan Tao a pioneer because it was discriminated against before society accepted it, he notes.
Emerging and mainstream religions may not suffer from persecution in today's Taiwan, but they are not immune from scandals. Last year Taiwanese were shocked with the news that twenty-four children living at a temple accused a Buddhist monk of sexual harassment. Many parents send their difficult-to-discipline children to temples in the hope that the power of religion can improve their behavior. But after this episode, people have begun to wonder whether their children are safe in such an environment.
A more recent scandal broke out this summer when police arrested the chairman of a well-known Taoist temple and his wife on charges of embezzlement and money laundering. Ironically, the arrest took place the day after the government cited the temple for its donations to charities over the past year. According to the MOI, religious groups made a total of NT$4.02 billion (US$116.5 million) in cash donations in 2000. The temple in question, the island's largest donator, gave NT$675 million (US$19.6 million) to various charities.
To provide a clear legal framework for the operation of religious groups, the government invited leaders of Taiwan's major religions to draw up a draft of Religious Organizations Act, which was completed and released in June. The draft contains thirty-three articles, including one stipulating that the authorities can cancel a religious group's registration if it is implicated in major illegal activities involving gambling, violence, or pornography. In addition, a religious group must obtain government permission before it can transfer a certain amount of movable property to another party or enterprise. In the past only the transfer of real property was reported. In a related development, efforts are underway to turn the MOI's Section of Religious Affairs into the Religious Affairs Department. The case for its establishment has already passed the first reading in the legislature.
Despite occasional moral lapses, religious groups still maintain a positive public image in Taiwan. The most obvious manifestation of their altruistic nature is perhaps best exemplified in their various organizations devoted to social welfare. The Roman Catholic and Protestant Churches are impressive in this regard. As of 2000 they operate twenty-six hospitals, accounting for half the number of hospitals in Taiwan run by religious groups. There are six rehabilitation centers and ten institutions for the handicapped, all run by Christians. In addition, the Catholic Church operates more kindergartens (199), centers for the mentally challenged (twenty-one), and nursing homes (ten) than any other religious group.
I-kuan Tao has established twenty-one hospitals to date, an impressive accomplishment compared with efforts of Buddhist and Taoist groups. "Christians are more active in setting up hospitals and other welfare institutions," concedes Hsieh Ching-kuei, deputy director of the Religious Affairs Department of the Tzu Chi Foundation, a Buddhist charity group founded in 1966. But some progress is being made. The Hualien Tzu Chi General Hospital, the island's first Buddhist hospital, opened its doors in eastern Taiwan in 1986. Fourteen years later Tzu Chi founded its second hospital in Chiayi, western Taiwan. The group plans to establish its third and fourth hospitals in northern and central Taiwan, respectively, in the near future. Tzu Chi also opened the island's first Buddhist colleges for nursing and for medicine in 1989 and 1994, respectively. These institutions have since been promoted to the status of Tzu Chi College of Technology and Tzu Chi University.
In contrast with other Buddhist groups, Tzu Chi is more involved in relief work both at home and abroad. "Tzu Chi offers a channel for Taiwanese to express their compassion because it is quite reliable," Hsieh Ching-kuei says. This reliability was duly noted by the public following the aftermath of the September 21 earthquake in 1999. The group collected an enormous amount of donations, and along with many other religious groups Tzu Chi offered not only material goods but also spiritual comfort to the surviving victims. The outpouring of donations and the effective distribution of aid were a clear example of how a religious group could play a key role in society.
Tzu Chi has gained international acclaim for the relief work it has accomplished over the last decade. Part of the recognition it received has helped spur something of a Buddhist movement around the world as the foundation has established over 130 branches in thirty-four countries over the last twelve years. The popularity of Buddhism outside the island has also grown under the direction of Master Hsing Yun, the founder of Fo Guang Shan, a major religious group in Taiwan. The grand Hsi-lai Temple in Los Angeles was completed in 1988, and in 1995 the largest temple in the southern hemisphere was opened by Fo Guang Shan in Sydney, Australia. Fo Guang Shan also has a presence in Amsterdam where in 2000 it built Europe's first Chinese-styled temple.
The one-time underdog I-kuan Tao, which set up its international headquarters in Los Angeles in 1996, has been actively proselytizing abroad in mainly overseas Chinese communities. "I-kuan Tao suits these people because it helps preserve Chinese culture and traditions," Hsiao Chia-chen says. He adds that I-kuan Tao seriously promotes traditional Chinese values such as filial piety and loyalty, and followers recite words from certain well-known books like The Analects of Confucius. "Once we can freely promote I-kuan Tao in mainland China, I think it will grow very quickly," he observes. "Mainland Chinese need to fill the cultural void left behind by the Cultural Revolution."
Unlike the mainland, Taiwan is home to a great variety of religions, some of which have been successfully exported to the rest of the world. And unlike some countries, the island practices religious tolerance which contributes to harmony among different groups. "Each religion can try to strengthen its congregation and get along with other groups at the same time," says the MOI's Huang Ching-sheng. In some instances the differences between religions are difficult for even believers to discern, like that between Taoism and Buddhism. And in some sense, there is no difference between the two or any other religion as long as followers find solace in their beliefs.