The work was demanding, but the young lady's heart was lit by an immeasurable joy. In a few days, all her delicate works of embroidery—the decorative shoes, pouches, handkerchiefs, pillowslips, quilt cover, and clothing, fruits of all the effort she had put in since childhood...all the painstaking dedication for so many hundreds of days and nights—would be presented before the admiring eyes of relatives and friends, guests at her wedding.
Yes, they would surely admire her skills—an embroidered mandarin-duck couple, flaunting fine, smooth, splendidly-colored feathers, in a distinct atmosphere of tender, eternal affection; her dignified dragon and elegant phoenix, gold floss and silver threads assuring their magnificence. And the articles she embroidered were not only dainty, but alive with spirit—attestations to this bride-to-be's taste and clever hands.
Seen in a vaster perspective, every single stitch accomplished by this young lady of old China was part of a still more ancient tradition, one which had long brought Chinese women to their embroidery frames, and eventually pushed the Chinese embroidery arts to an ultimate of attainment.
In ancient China, as in many other national cultures, woman's life was closely linked to needlework. But in no other place did embroidery occupy so important a position. A Chinese girl learned to embroider from the time she was six or seven years old. And she had to: almost every household textile article, from a small slipper to a large bed drape, required the attention of the embroiderer.
It is inferred from certain bone needles and other relics found in China's Neolithic habitations, that very crude, preliminary embroidery must have been employed, while stitching clothes together from skins, over ten thousand years ago. The Chinese people started both to paint and embroider more intricate patterns on their costumes at least 43 centuries ago—a probable artistic extension of primitive tribal tattooing customs. One specific function was to indicate, via appropriate painted and embroidered decor, degrees of formal social status.
Confucius records in his Shang Shu (Book of History) that the legendary ruler Shun (circa 2200 B.C.) directed his equally legendary successor Yu (reputed founder of the Hsia Dynasty, c. 2205-1782 B.C.) to have "the six insignia"—the sun, moon, a star, mountain, dragon, and pheasant—painted on his imperial upper garment; and another six insignia—the tsung yi (a sacrificial utensil), a waterweed, flame, grain, ax, and fu (a black and blue figure comprising a pair of characters placed back to back) embroidered on the lower dress. Subordinate nobles and officials sported decreasing numbers of such insignia in accordance with rank.
Thus was initiated dynastic China's enduring "carriage and clothing ranking system." The insignia formats went through many changes over the ensuing ages; for example, during the Ming (1368-1644) and Ching (1644-1911) Dynasties, symbols were specifically embroidered on square patches—bird insignia for civil officials, and beasts for military officers. The insignia system was passed down throughout the ages to the Republic, stabilizing the position of embroidery as an important art in Imperial China.
A contemporary master of the embroidery arts, Ma Liang-hsuan.
According to The Book of Chou Rites (traditionally regarded as an 11th Century B.C. work by the Duke of Chou, but more scientifically assessed as belonging to the Period of Warring States, c. 403-222 B.C.), the Chou Dynasty (c. 1122-249 B.C.) maintained artisans in the palace to embroider formal attire for the royal family. And in the Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.), embroidery was patronized and directly supervised by the imperial court; at the time, embroidery techniques were applied not only to wearing apparel, but as ornamentation for many other items—carriages, personal objects, banners, etc.
Because textiles are very vulnerable to climate, pests, and age, examples of very ancient embroidery work are very rare today. But judging from a limited number of extant pieces, the embroidery arts of the Period of Warring States generally reflected a lively and magnificent spirit via a variety of simple, yet forceful designs.
The designs of the Han Dynasty—composed mainly of geometric patterns, motifs of birds and beasts, and decorative appliques of cloudcapped peaks, wild game, and hunting parties—though obviously elegant and gorgeous, appear less majestic.
Since embroidery was, in the beginning, more for practical use than for strictly aesthetic appreciation, most of it, from the Chou up to the Han Dynasties, was accomplished with a simple "chain stitch." Tightly bound, one link to another, this stitching is distinctively more durable than the later-developed "flat stitch."
Flat stitches, worked in parallelled lines, produce a greater luster. They were first developed during the Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-24 A.D.), along with the ta tzu stitch, accomplished by winding the thread many times around the needle, then drawing the needle back through the material at the point where it came out, equivalent to a french knot; and also, the technique to apply silk fabrics or feathers with the embroidery. However, the chain stitch remained in the mainstream.
During the Tsin (265-420 A.D.) and Southern and Northern Dynasties (420-589 A.D.), requirements for facial embroidery on fabric images of the Bodhisattva, and the introduction of such realistic subject matter as the lotus, peony, mandarin duck, and hsi chih (a water bird resembling the mandarin duck) offered a favorable environment for popularization of flat stitches. And from the Tang Dynasty (618-907 A.D.) onward, flat stitches gradually reached a level of expression in which various forms could be utilized quite comprehensively.
A "painting-embroidery" of mandarin ducks, by Ma Liang-hsuan.
It was not, however, until the ultimate development of flat stitch forms during the Sung Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.), that ornamental embroidery "purely for art's sake" came into its own. The Chinese art of embroidery was henceforth characterized by a special brilliance.
In the Period of the Three Kingdoms (220-265 A.D.), two court ladies became famous embroidery masters: Madame Chao (wife of Sun Chuan, the ruler of the State of Wu), and Lady Hsueh Ling-yun. Their attainments won them the honorary appellations Chen Chueh (Needle Master), and Hsiu Shen (Goddess of Embroidery), respectively. Madame Chao, famous for her delicately embroidered maps and battle arrays, is the first individual "embroidery master" recorded by history.
During the prosperous Tang Dynasty, embroidery techniques were further improved. A young girl, Lu Mei-niang, 14, embroidered seven volumes of the Buddhist Scripture Fa Hua Ching (translated into Chinese during the Tsin Dynasty) on a one-foot-long piece of silk. Though each embroidered Chinese character is as small as a millet grain, not a single character stroke is missing.
Influenced now by the burgeoning popularity of Buddhism, a large proportion of Tang Dynasty embroiderers drew their subject matter from religious themes. To demonstrate their piety, believers often worked over ten years embroidering specific Buddhist scenes. Some of these herculean productions are on exhibit today at the Shoso-in in Nara, Japan, which houses many 8th Century Chinese art treasures.
Other such magnificent Tang Dynasty pieces were found in the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas at Tunhuang, an oasis on the Silk Road. A most noted piece, now a part of the British Museum's Stein Collection, is a life-size depiction of the Sakyamuni Buddha preaching on Mount Grdhrakuta.
In this period, embroidery color techniques paid special regard to shading, and were quite advanced. And new ping chin skills (twining gold or silver threads to form a pattern, and fastening them down by small stitches at regular intervals, similar to the "couching stitch") created three-dimensional effects.
The Sung Dynasty's purposeful policy of putting intellectual pursuits above the martial arts stimulated China's golden age of fine arts. The venerable current of embroidery also surged forward within this atmosphere.
Ma Liang-hsuan's dragon emerges from embroidered mists.
During the reign of Emperor Hsuan-ho (1119-1125), embroidery workshops were officially established in the Sung Dynasty capital of Pienching (today's Kaifeng, Honan Province), as well as other artistically prospering locales, such as Soochow, Kiangsu Province, and Hangchow, Chekiang Province. One single workshop in the capital employed 300 embroidery masters to produce both items for daily use and collector-quality pieces.
Under the impact of the Sung Dynasty's popular yuan ti school of court painting, "painting-embroidery" and "calligraphy-embroidery," using needles and flosses instead of brushes and pigments, came into a great vogue. Unlike the works of previous dynasties, most of these Sung works featured unembroidered backgrounds; only the featured subjects were done, in satin stitch.
This new embroidery fashion diverged more strongly, as time passed, from practical folk embroidery styles, more closely linking itself with painting: most favored now were renditions of flower-bird, landscape, and human figure painting motifs. Finally, the trend moved to direct embroidery of painters' sketches, with the embroidery master responsible for texture and colors. For a while, flower-bird paintings by Huang Chuan (903-965) and calligraphic works by Su Shih (1036-1101) and Mi Fei (1057-1101) were specially popular embroidery subjects.
Since "painting-embroidery" aims at exacting imitation of paint or ink pigment applications, a great variety of stitches and intricate coloring effects are required to catch the "vivacity" of the original; 15 or 16 types of flat stitches were employed in such Sung Dynasty works.
All these stitches were also to be found in folk embroidery of the same period, along with the additional folk form chuo sha (counting off the interstices on the grid of the gauze ground and then weaving designs with a cross stitch). These stitch forms had long-term influence on the later development of Chinese embroidery. In fact, during the Tang and Sung Dynasties, stitches employed in folk embroidery increased continuously. From the vigor of its creativity, folk embroidery offered new impetus to the development of "art" embroidery.
The rise of Buddhist Lamaism during the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) again drew embroidery back to religious themes. In this period, extensive use of gold and silver threads made embroidery very luxurious. But very few examples of such Yuan Dynasty works remain.
The Ming Dynasty ushered in a new season for the art of Chinese embroidery, departing from the strictly religious focus. Apart from the traditional silk and gold threads, embroidery materials now included pearls, down from the tail feathers of Siamese fighting cocks, and even human hair. As materials became progressively and unprecedentedly more delicate, the texture of the embroidery work became more exquisite.
Ming Dynasty color tastes contrasted with the "mellow" tints handed down from the Sung Dynasty; in general, colors gradually became more gorgeous and luxuriant. Sometimes an artist's brush was now manipulated to add color to empty space, blending painting and the embroidery arts in a new way.
The most famous embroidery style of the Ming Dynasty was Shanghai's Ku Hsiu (embroidery of the Ku family). An innovation of Ku Hui-hai's concubine, Madame Miu, the Ku Hsiu style was celebrated for its free application of the effects of different needles, the rich charms of its color gradations, and the neatness of its stitches. Madame Miu's renowned masterpiece, A Picture of Eight Steeds, was deemed on a level with the famous work of Yuan Dynasty horse-painter Chao Tzu-ang (1254-1322). Her successor, Han Hsi-meng, wife of Ku Shou-chien, was famous for her embroidery of flower-bird themes. Han's elegant album of embroidery, imitating reputed Sung and Yuan paintings, was an unique masterpiece.
A venerable shopper and probable connoisseur examines an embroidered slipper.
Stimulated further by the evident popularity of Ku Hsiu, embroidery became very market-fashionable. Through the Ming and Ching Dynasties, private embroidery workshops sprang up everywhere. The market, indeed, became highly competitive, and embroidery innovation was encouraged.
Localized embroidery treatments now popped up, one after another, like bamboo shoots after a spring rain. By the end of the Ching Dynasty, regional embroidery styles, each rich with distinctive local flavor, were in full flower. Among the most notable were those of Soochow, Hunan, and Peking—the Su Hsiu, Hsiang Hsiu, and Ching Hsiu styles, respectively.
Su Hsiu prevailed in roughly the same area as Ku Hsiu, supplanting Ku Hsiu while retaining the latter's elegant characteristics.
The Hsiang Hsiu style is even more dainty than the Su Hsiu: After being unwound from the cocoon and treated, the silk strand is split into twenty some filaments to produce the floss for Hsiang Hsiu. The fine texture and color gradation of Hsiang Hsiu are incomparably natural and harmonious, giving each piece as glossy an appearance as a painting.
Ching Hsiu is believed to have originated among palace maidens, who, contrary to popular impressions, were in need of ways to earn pocket money. They embroidered objects ranging from purses to curtains and religious items.
Embroidery was actively promoted within the court. In 1736, Emperor Chienlung established a palace workshop employing both men and women to embroider religious and court garments for imperial officials. Men and women in the court, as well as lesser officials, were sumptuously clothed, with prescribed decorative designs indicating not only their rank or status, but family lineage. Most special of all was the emperor's "nine dragon robe."
During the reigns of Emperors Kanghsi, Yungcheng, and Chienlung (1662-1796), piping times of peace, society was relatively stable and tranquil, fertile ground for the fuller development of embroidery. This millennial Chinese artform no longer confined itself to traditional subject matter; multifarious stitches were joined freely to attain complicated yet harmonious effects; and embroidery stretched spontaneously into all aspects of people's daily lives. Embroidery skills were definitely, now, deemed requisite feminine virtues in all households.
During the reign of Emperor Tao-kuang (1821-1850), the Manual of Embroidery, by Ting Pei, was the first Chinese work ever to specifically discuss embroidery techniques. With (the later) Hsueh-huan's Manual of Embroidery by Shen Shou, everyone now had access to excellent expositions of the embroidery arts.
Shen Shou, at the watershed of the downfall of the Ching Dynasty and birth of the Republic, now applied Western painting techniques—chiaroscuro, perspective—to Chinese embroidery, adding new dimensions. Particularly adept at figure embroidery, Shen gained special renown for her embroidered image of an Italian queen.
With the growth of Western painting influences on Chinese embroidery, around the 1920s to 1930s, Yang Shou-yuh pioneered the Luan Chen Hsiu style, an embroidery form utilizing a texture of overlapping, multi-directional threads, which produced the appearance of oil painting when viewed from a certain distance.
By warmly accepting baptisms of "exotic" foreign cultures, Chinese embroidery became more vigorous, richer in content than ever.
Today, in the Republic of China on Taiwan, with the widespread utilization of embroidery looms and versatile sewing machines, hand-made embroidery has generally given way to machine production. Still, the traditions of embroidery have been continued by individual practitioners.
Among the ROC's most notable embroidery artists, Ma Liang-hsuan is celebrated for her Hsiang Hsiu-style painting-embroidery, Yang Szu-hsueh and Lee Hsien-shu (see FCR, December 1982) for their Luan Chen Hsiu pieces, and Yang Shiu-chih (see FCR, May 1983) for her very delicate, machine-made painting-embroidery. Their works are often very original and creative.
Many obscure embroiderers, most of them the wives of ROC soldiers who came to Taiwan in 1949 with elements of the national army, have long provided traditional hand-embroidered items—slippers, purses, pillowslips, wall hangings—for embroidery boutiques. One such renowned downtown Taipei shop has had a history of just 30 years.
There are numerous individual embroidery connoisseurs and collectors, and the National Palace Museum and the National Museum of History both maintain treasuries of historically significant Chinese embroidery.
The embroidery collection of the National Palace Museum covers attainments from the Sung Dynasty onwards, and its total 179 pieces include banners and landscape scrolls (painting-embroidery). Two noted pieces, attributed to Sung times, have appeared in exhibitions in Europe and America—a mottled eagle embroidered on a dark blue background is fastened to its perch by leash, swivel, and jesses; a "thousand-armed" Kuan Yin Bodhisattva (Goddess of Mercy) is seated under a canopy on a lotus throne.
The collection of the National Museum of History consists mainly of Ching Dynasty pieces, including cord-stitched gilt dragon robes, and tablecloths and horizontal decorative curtains with embroidered patterns of dragons, phoenixes, sparrows, cranes, human figures, and whole landscapes.
While fine embroidery pieces employing "simple" coloring from China's age-old treasure trove are neither dull nor insipid, those done with multifarious colors are especially vivacious and harmonious. The diversity of color use in Chinese embroidery is literally marvelous: for example, 30 to 40 variations of the color brown alone. Hsueh-huan's Manual of Embroidery lists 88 differentiated colors, with, altogether, 745 shading variations.
Although both techniques and colors have been ever-changing, certain other qualities of Chinese embroideries have maintained unique aspects, always sustaining a distinctive national flavor to the present day.