The 42 pieces in this exhibition span the five hundred years from the Northern Wei through the Tang Aside from two seated lions of the Tang and a female musician of the Late Tang, the rest of the exhibited items are stone Buddhist icons.
Nineteen of the sculptures, steles, and votive tablets on show were shipped to Taiwan with the generous assistance of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, lent just for this exhibition. One Tang stele is from the collection of the Princeton University Art Museum, while private collectors from all over the United States—Messrs. C.K. Chan, Paul Wang, Mason Wang, and John M. Crawford. Jr.—have magnanimously made available pieces from their collections.
Among all the exhibited items, the biggest is a Tang tomb doorway, 60 in. high and 38 in. wide, acquired by the Metropolitan Museum in 1920, the smallest, a Tang votive tablet showing twenty-five Buddhas, 8 cm high and 5.5 cm wide. The items are of sandstone, limestone, serpentine, marble, alabaster, conglomerate, and unglazed ceramic.
It took two years for the preparatory stages of the exhibition. Due to the necessity of funding huge insurance premiums and transportation fees, it was not until the end of last year, when the first batch of sculptures arrived safely at Taipei, that the whole event was definitely assured.
The earliest Chinese Buddhist caves are believed to be at Pingling Temple and Tunhuang in present-day Kansu Province, and were begun during the Western Chin (385-434) and the Northern Liang (401-439) Dynasties and the 16 States Period (304-439). From the 4th to the 13th Century, Buddhist caves spread to a dozen provinces. The art developed from the Mokao group of caves near Tunhuang, and taking Tatung, Shansi Province and Loyang, Honan Province as its centers, developed in three routes toward the downstream regions of the Yellow River. The northeastern line passed through Hopei, Shantung and reached as far as Liaoning; the southwestern route included Honan, Shensi, and Kansu, and then turned into Hsinchiang, Szechwan, Yunnan, and Kuangsi; the southeastern route reached Kiangsu and Chekiang Provinces.
During the first two centuries of its existence, Buddhism, born in India in the 6th Century B.C., was confined to the Ganges Valley. At about the beginning of the Christian era (during China's Han Dynasty, 206 B.C.-219A.D.) it entered the populous, civilized centers of China and began a steady, if sometimes slow and halting, expansion throughout the country.
Although the exact movement of Buddhism into China remains a puzzle, it is generally accepted that the religion, between the first half of the 1st Century B.C. and the middle of the 1st Century A.D., slowly infiltrated (through emissaries, worshippers, or apostles) from the northwest via the Silk Road, and entered Tunhuang. Kansu Province, thence reaching Loyang, the Late Han capital.
With the end of the Han Dynasty in 220 A.D., China entered a period of disunity lasting until 589. During the final years of the Western Tsin Dynasty (269-316 A.D.), the Chinese foothold in North China became an illusion, as the Huns captured the city of Loyang in 311 and the city of Changan in 316.
The fall of these two centers of Chinese civilization marked the end of Chinese suzerainty in the northern territories for almost three centuries, and forced the emigration of literati, officials, and learned Buddhist monks from the North to settlements in the South near the present Nanking. These refugees helped to establish the Eastern Tsin Dynasty (316-419) and maintained the determination to recapture North China (the 16 States Period) and restore the supremacy of Chinese culture over the whole country. However, at the time, they must have had grave doubts about Chinese proclivities as a result of their loss of the heartland of Chinese culture. It might be, under such conditions, that they turned to Buddhism.
In the South, because the royal household was weak at the time, the Buddhist community was able to assert its independence of secular authority. The development of Buddhism in the North-in the presence of non-Chinese rulers and large non-Chinese population-resulted, more or less, in a state religion.
After the Eastern Tsin, in 420, the Liu Sung Dynasty (420-479) was established in South China, while North China, beginning in 440, was unified under the Northern Wei Dynasty (386-534). Thus began the era called the Northern (Northern Wei Dynasty, Eastern Wei, Western Wei, Northern Chi, Northern Chou) and Southern (Liu Sung, Chi, Liang, Chen) Dynasties. During this period, in both northern and southern China, Buddhism was gradually accepted by both Chinese and non-Chinese rulers, and the masses.
The spirit of the times led to the desire for tranquil lives and the wish to be freed of the world's rigors, and Buddhism thus found eager and ready minds waiting for it in China. With the belief from India that the creation of Buddhist images and cave temples would win blessings, the whole country, especially rulers and wealthy families, hoping to earn merit for the afterlife, financed the carving of thousands of devotional images out of rock, and of the structures in which to worship them.
The Northern Wei Dynasty, therefore, is often referred to as the beginning stage for the art of cave sculptures in China-this inception a direct result of imperial patronage. In the Northern Dynasties, Emperor Wencheng of Northern Wei directed carving of the first five imperial caves (Caves 16 to 20) at Yun-kang. Emperor Hsiaowen of the same dynasty followed with the Kuyang and Pinyang Caves in Lungmen. From the Southern Dynasties, Emperor Liangsu contributed most to the propagation of Buddhism. The southerners could not, however, compare with the Northern Dynasties in attainments in the arts of stone sculpture, mostly because the former lacked the northern rock precipices so suitable for the carving of Buddhist icons. However, the south saw large scale building of Buddhist temples and sculpture work, especially during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Liang Dynasty.
Opposition to the religion also occurred in both Southern and Northern Dynasties, and had their effects on the caves. Emperor Taiwu of the Northern Wei, in 446-452, and Emperor Wu of the Northern Chou, during 574-577, decreed the destruction of all Buddhist images and scriptures.
As a result of resistance to the accompanying persecutions, the five Tanyao caves at Yunkang were carved during the reign of Emperor Wencheng of Northern Wei. Thus, while on the surface the two Emperors' persecutions certainly constituted a blow to the development of the religion, they also resulted in its large-scale establishment.
The development of the Buddhist caves of the Northern Dynasties can be divided into four historical phases: 1. The former phase of the Northern Wei Dynasty-from the five Tanyao caves at Yunkang during the reign of Emperor Wencheng to 495, the year Emperor Hsiaowen moved the capital to Loyang. The Yunkang Caves are representative. 2. The latter phase of the Northern Wei —from Emperor Hsiaowen's transfer of the capital to Loyang to the end of the Northern Wei (535). The Lungmen Caves are representative. 3. The period of the Eastern Wei Dynasty (534-539). 4. The period of the Northern Chi.
A silhouette from the past-Speaking to all nations in the universal language of art
Some ten miles west of Tatung, Shansi Province, the village of Yunkang is situated at the foot of a steep escarpment (Mt. Wuchou). The Wuchou River runs nearby. The craggy sandstone terrain on the northern bank of the river extends for one mile, east to west. Grottoes holding stone images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas were chiseled out on the south of this terrain.
The five Tanyao caves (Caves 16 to 20, created by sculptors under the supervision of Monk Tanyao) are the first and most important grouping of Yunkang Caves. Everyone of the five holds a giant stone figure of the Buddha, more than ten meters high. It is said that the caves were Emperor Wencheng's commemoration of the five previous Emperors. Started in 460, in new fervor and in expiation for the Buddhist persecutions of 446-452, the cave chapels at Yunkang were the result of Imperial orders.
The Northern Wei domain was, at the time, an empire ruled by the North China Topa people, considered barbarians by the Chinese. It was not until the 6th Century that the Topa came under the full influence of Chinese culture. Therefore, the Yunkang rock sculptures manifest, mostly, their importation of influences stemming from Gandhara, Central India, and Central Asia.
The cut lines and surfaces of the early colossal images of Yunkang are uncomplicated, cut in accordance with the principles of naturalism, not formalism. All have imposing bodies, broad shoulders, thick lips, big ears, stout necks, and plump cheeks. They always gaze toward the front. The body of the images is usually symmetrically arranged and, al though they wear smiles, their faces reveal a spirit of majesty.
During the latter phase of the Yun-kang Caves, the bodies of the images become more slender; they appear embedded in purely geometric concepts. The faces have a pointed look, characterized by narrowness and a high arch to the eyebrows.
After the Northern Wei people transferred their court to Loyang in 495-as soon as they sell led down-they started to search for a site near the city to create sculptures of greater grandeur than those at Yunkang. They found an appropriate one at Lungmen, 15 miles south of the city of Loyang, created by two chains of small mountains which cradle the Yi River.
The famous Lungmen Caves are carved into stone cliffs along both banks of the Yi River, though most of the Northern Wei's 28 giant caves appear on the west bank. Those carved during the Tang Dynasty (including 7 giant caves) are on the east bank. After the end of the Northern Wei Dynasty, construction activities stopped for a while. But during the Sui (581-618) and Tang (618-906) Dynasties work was resumed on a large scale.
Of the 2,137 caves at Lungmen, about one third were carved during the Northern Wei Dynasty. Representative are the Kuyang Caves, Pinyang Caves, and Lienhua Caves. The Lungmen cliffs are limestone. Compared with the loose, soft sandstone of Yunkang, the fine, hard limestone at Lungmen is much better suited for the carving of detailed images.
The figures recall the sweep of Dynasties, propelling and propelled by an immense tide of religion that called forth great devotion and art from man
Following its transfer of capitals, the Northern Wei Dynasty gradually came under the influence of Chinese culture. Therefore, the Yunkang sculpting style, showing the union of the undaunted, gallant spirit of the Topa people who had founded the empire, and of western Asian sculpture carving skills, disappeared. Images with broad-sleeved, loose robes characterize Lungmen stone sculptures-the sculpturing skills of this period emphasizing exquisiteness, gracefulness, ingenuity. The lines are more mature and show a touch of rhythm. The art of stone sculpture of the Northern Wei Dynasty reaches its zenith in this period of Lungmen Caves.
The first group of caves at Lungmen were the Kuyang Caves (495 A.D.), 13 meters deep, 11 meters high, 7 meters wide. Most of the Buddhist niches bear dated inscriptions, showing that the caves were created by the royal family, officials, monks, and religious societies. The chief images at the Kuyang Caves were of Sakyamuni and the Bodhisattvas. Smaller images rested in three rows of symmetrical niches, above.
The slender appearance of the Kuyang images provides a hard-to-catch, mysterious touch. Long, regularly pleated gowns with wide sleeves-naturally hanging-substitute for the tightly adhering garments of the Yunkang style. Facial expressions have changed from lofty and blissfully serene, to become gentle, graceful, natural.
After the construction of the Kuyang Caves, the imperial family continued to finance the carving of the Pinyang Caves at Lungmen. It reportedly took 23 years to chisel the three Pinyang Caves, though the major Buddhist sculptures of the first two caves were not completed until 641, during the Tang Dynasty.
The Pinyang Caves, begun in 500, have generally been regarded as the most complete of the Lungmen giant caves. Here, relief images of Emperors and Empresses advance to pay their respects to the Buddha; their facial expressions are especially sincere, calm. Unlike the small niches in the Kuyang Caves, all the images carved on the inside walls of the Pinyang caves are big, exquisite.
The Northern Wei style continued into the Eastern Wei (534-550) and Western Wei (535-557). The Kunghsien Caves on the cliffs of Mt. Mang near Loyang are representative. Altogether, only five caves were carved there. The images look like those of the Lungmen Caves-narrow face, high brows, large eyes, smiling mouth. However, the pleats of the robes lose their shaped, angular character. The treatment of drapery becomes mechanical and repetitive, the countenances of the images, milder.
During the Northern Chi (550-577), the Dynasty succeeding Eastern Wei and Western Wei, a style different from Northern Wei emerged. The cave temples of Hsiangtangshan, situated on the border of Hopei and Honan Provinces, can best represent the style of the rock sculptures of the period. They appear uncomplicated, cleaner, rational, and natural. Unlike those of the Northern Wei, image countenances of the Northern Chi are quite calm. Bodies of Buddha and the Bodhisattvas are stronger and more muscular. Faces are squarely-round and appear heavy and honest. Snake-like curls constitute a typical hair style. The robe pleats are rather conceptualized, loosely covering the body without particular intention to show the shape. The robe was made to end elegantly, with a crisply modulated hem-a trademark of the Northern Chi style.
Besides a rich halo behind some of the images, Hsiangtangshan rock sculptures of this period have gradually reflected the unique style of the northern Chinese people. They now look more Chinese than foreign. The Northern Chi style laid a foundation for the development of the stone sculpture art of the Tang Dynasty.
During the Sui (581-618), few new stone temples were constructed. However, sculptors carved numerous small images at caves executed in the Northern and Southern Dynasties, such as Lungmen, Tienlungshan, Tunhuang, and Yuhanshan in Shantung Province.
There is no doubt that the sculptor of this piece would, today, speak in tones of modern man
Generally, the style of the Northern Chi Dynasty continued to be followed in the Sui Dynasty. The shapes of eyes, nose, and mouth corners appear agile and smart. Bodies of Bodhisattvas are ornamented with heavy, luxurious jewelry, a hallmark of the Dynasty's sculptures. Faces vary from the long, thin visages of the Northern Wei, to the fleshy and soft countenances of the Northern Chi and Chou, to the friendly and intimate expressions of the Tang Dynasty. The facial structures and expressions of the Sui Dynasty show transition-sharply delineated eyes and strong-willed mouths. Images of the Dynasty appear stern; in their majestic proportions, more powerful than mystical.
Gradually, Buddhism and its arts were inevitably altered by their encounter with Chinese culture. The influence of foreign cultures had been absorbed and blended with Chinese culture. Elegance, shown in the Sui devotional images, became a special feature of Chinese Buddhist sculptures. Therefore, during the Tang Dynasty, a complete Chinese-style Buddhist art was created, and bloomed in full.
In the Tang Dynasty (618-906), Buddhism developed to unprecedented heights under the friendly patronage of the ruling families and with the support of all elements of society. Divine stone figures of the Dynasty reached the zenith of the art. They are widely distributed and in large numbers.
Different styles appear in three phases-the Early Tang (618-683), the Prosperous, Tang (684-755), and Middle Late Tang (756-907). A tendency toward realism is a general and unique feature of most of the Tang images. They were thus instilled with more spirit.
In the history of China, the Tang citizens were an especially happy people, a happiness based on "doing anything one's heart dictates, but not transgressing the bounds of correctness." They revealed their passion and confidence in literature ... and the arts of Buddhism as well. In general, stone sculptures of the Dynasty took a more realistic approach-friendly, intimate-fraught with a gentle, merciful atmosphere and a magnanimous spirit.
A fierce temple guard roars from within his bronze prison
Under the influence of the former Sui Dynasty style, the stone images of the Early Tang remained, more or less, solemn, lofty. But, from Emperor Hsuantsung (712-756), divine figures developed from stout and bulky to sym metrical, even, and graceful. The round, smooth, benign faces are full of mercy for humankind.
Artistic production from the Tien-lungshan Caves, located near Taiyuan, Shansi Province, during the reign of Empress Wu (reigned 690-705) and Emperor Hsuantsung of the Tang Dynasty achieved its highest attainments. These cave sculptures seldom exceed one meter high; a trend towards smaller scale images had begun. Bearings and body shapes are vividly expressed. The sculptures of this phase display warm, fragrant, human natures. Bodhisattva images, in particular, reveal a peaceful, calm, refined beauty.
Although Buddhist sculpture reached its most mature period in the Mid-Tang, the period saw no creative advancements. The Late Tang Dynasty sculpture laid stress on ornamentation, lacking inner vitality. Concepts of wealth were announced with splendid clothes and ornaments. Devotional images at Pingling Temple in Kansu Province and Wanfo Temple in Szechwan Province are the representative works.
Across the vast Chinese territory, hailing from the Northern and Southern Dynasties, from the Sui, Tang and even the Sung and Ming Dynasties, stone temples, carved into cliffs, with small and giant Buddhist statues and stone animal figures- refined or coarse-can be seen. However, over more than a thousand years, Buddhist cave sculptures have been damaged by either natural disasters or chaos, social upheavals, and wars. Destruction due to the latter during the past one hundred years has been much greater than the former. Numerous national treasures of this kind have been damaged, destroyed, and plundered. As visitors stand before the surviving stone images now on exhibit at the National Museum of History in Taipei, wordless tears may now down some cheeks, as if they were seeing some very close, now aged, friends after a very long separation.