To refine the general political environment of ancient China, it was considered necessary to raise the character of those in public service to a higher level through poetry. Civil servants were encouraged to write poems, an art regarded as close to the sublimity of Nature. Tai-tsung, the second emperor of the Tang dynasty, sought to raise Chinese culture to a level higher than that of other nations. Kao-tsung and Hsuan-tsung, his successors, did the same. They discussed poetry and politics with scholars and ministers. Hsuan-tsung was especially fond of poetic tests. Once while playing a game with his prime minister, Chang Shoh, the emperor sent for young Li Pi and asked that he be put to a test in poetry. The examinee quickly made up an excellent poem of four lines strictly to the point and later was offered a post in the cabinet. On another occasion, Shih Chih, a native of Lingking, claimed he could produce a verse faster than Tsao Chih, the son of Tsao Tsao of Han. Put to a test in front of the emperor, he won the contest and was offered a good position in government. Hsuan tsung once climbed a hill and composed a poem. He asked ministers and attendants to write one using the same rhyme scheme. Shih Yu was the winner not only of the competition but also of the title of Kuanmien or poet laureate. Hsuan-tsung took great interest in poetry and may be regarded as the originator of the poetic test to determine who should be chosen for public service. He was, incidentally, under the influence of Lady Shang-kuan Wang-erh.
The formal poetic contest was inaugurated on the first day of the eleventh moon in 754. Hsuan-tsung was present to oversee the proceedings at the palace. Candidates were required to write a shih or poem and a fu or prose in rhyme. They also answered a literary questionnaire. High ranking officials were empowered to select the subject matter, which had to be specific. This system was carried out for nearly a century and half until the end of the dynasty.
In 837, Wen-tsung chose "The Rainbow Skirt and Feathered Coat" as a subject. This was a famous tune from India, revised by Hsuan-tsung. Musicians often sang it on his orders. One of his favorite concubines, Yang Kwei-fei, liked it. A song by Po Chu-i (772-846) tells how Hsuan-tsung was distracted by Yang Kwei-fei while playing the tune for her and almost lost his empire.
Rhyme regulation was important in poetry and poetic prose. Beginning with the Han dynasty, people were enthusiastic about the fu. But the five-word shih later took the leading role. Shen Yo (441-513) pointed out the eight defects of verse in his work on poetry. Despite literary developments, Shen's principles were followed by poets and scholars for centuries. As the poetic tests began, the fu was used. The shih was added later in the test for the highest grade of chinshih. By 754, both fu and shih were included and regulations became rigid. The poet was burdened by tone and rhyme. People have been surprised to learn that both Li Po and Tu Fu, two of China's greatest poets, failed the civil examination. Those who didn't know rhyme were bound to fail. Wang Ling-ran, an impoverished scholar was "elected" to participate in the examination but failed when his friend Kao Chuang-yu was serving as examiner. Several years later he passed the examination under another examiner. Wang wrote a letter to Kao, saying he had been ignorant of rhyme but had now caught up with Kao. He enclosed copies of his poems.
Good poetry required comprehension of the tonal system. The spoken language underwent several major changes after early Chou times. By the Tang dynasty, there were five tones classified in two groups: one ping or even and the other tse or oblique. Each poem generally consisted of four lines but in the public examination this was increased to twelve. Each line usually had five words or seven words, rarely more. The tonal arrangement was something like this:
Ping ping tse tse ping
Tse tse tse ping ping
Tse tse ping ping tse
Ping ping tse tse ping
For a seven-word verse, two words had to be added to each line. A stanza of four lines was known as the chuehchu, eight lines as the lushih and twelve lines or more as the pailu. The last word of each line had to be written in the same rhyme with exception of the third, fifth, seventh and possibly the first. The pailu consisted of lines in pairs.
Although there were no problems of inflection, agglutination, number, gender, tense and such other grammatical conventions in the Chinese language, the verse writer had enough difficulties with tone and rhyme. The sovereign took note of this. Reading the Book of History, Hsuan-tsung found a discordant word and issued an imperial edict recommending a change. He changed a word in the Laotze classic and discussed this at a cabinet meeting. Sung Chi or "Sung the Fifth," who long had been a candidate, once committed a mistake in standard rhyme. He sighed: "Oh! Sung the Fifth is rather careless." After that he became known as "Sung the Careless." When a list of successful candidates including Sung Chi was submitted to the throne, the emperor asked, "Is Sung not careless again?"
Chang Chiu-ling passed nine civil tests and later served as high minister at court. He sent a memorial to the throne complaining: "To pass judgment on a man's ability on the basis of a poem is costing the country many talents and worthwhile men. This is a great defect in public administration." In 757, Hsuan-tsung began to realize this. In an official proclamation, he said scholars were wasting too much time on tonal and rhythmic arrangements and had become ignorant of worldly affairs. Despite opposition and interruptions, the system remained in effect. About 758, a copy of the rhyming dictionary and several copies of the classics were placed on a long table in the courtyard of the examination hall for the candidates' reference.
The rhyming dictionary was called Chieh Yun. It was compiled in the first few years of the Sui dynasty. Lu Fa-yen, a distinguished scholar, was the chief compiler; others included two from south of the Yangtze and the rest from the north. Some apparently were descendants of northern tribesmen. Each entry seemed to have been decided by a collaborator from Kiangsu and one from the north. Entries represented the popular pronunciation of the words in the larger part of the country.
Candidates for chinshih had to write either shih or fu according to the regulations set forth in the dictionary. The fu had no fixed form. In the Han dynasty there were several famous fu writers. The work of Ssu-ma Hsiang-ju achieved distinction and attracted the attention of Emperor Wu-ti, who asked him to write for the palace musicians. The shih made faster progress than the fu Composition of the fu was loose and its form irregular. The fu of the Black Pearl is an example. It has eight stanzas with an introduction and eight words ABCDEFGH as rhyme, thus:
Introduction
Stanza 1 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A
Stanza 2 B1 B2 B B3
Stanza 3 C1 C2 C C3
Stanza 4 D D1
Stanza 5 E1 E2 E3 E
Stanza 6 F F1 F2 F3
Stanza 7 G G1 G2 G3
Stanza 8 H H1 H2 H3
The first stanza of this fu appears to be the longest. The fourth has only two sentences. Other stanzas are of the same length. The number of sentences or lines were not regulated, nor was the order of each rhymed word. The rhyme may occur at the end of the first line or in the middle. Arrangement of the fu is easy to learn but hard to refine. The Black Pearl is by Po Chu-i, who failed to pass the fu test. Yet two lines of his fu won wide popularity while the works of successful candidates were quickly forgotten.
Tso Szu (230-309) spent a year writing a fu on the capital of Tse. Later he spent ten years on a fu about the Three Capitals of the Three Kingdoms. In its preface he tells us:
The shih has six meanings, the fu being its second one. Yang Hsiang said, "The fu of a poet is beautified by principles." Pang Koo declared. The fu is a sort of old poesy. The ancient kings had to collect them and see the local customs. I wish to imitate the fu on the two metropolises and write one on the three capitals. As for the locales of cities and districts, I consulted maps. As for the fauna and flora, I got the evidence from the records. Poetry is the voice expressing what is in the mind. A fu is made by climbing to a high place where many things can be seen.
Generally speaking, a candidate who passed the first examination was not offered a post until he was successful in the test given by the Ministry of Personnel. The examinee had to demonstrate his knowledge in the classics, history, literature and above all his proficiency in rhyming. Candidates came from every part of the country to the designated city, usually the western capital of Changan. On examination day they arrived carrying mats, utensils, fuel and candles. In front of the examination hall there was an incense table where the examining official and candidates met. Candidates for higher grades were generally well treated. They got curtains and carpeting. Those sitting for lower tests did not get the same privileges.
The sovereign often would appear in the hall to observe the proceedings. Candidates were allowed three candles to finish their papers by night. Those who were hungry got soup. There was tea to drink. Yuan Chen composed this poem on his personal experience at the examination.
To the palace came the examinees in blue gowns.
Their ink slabs and pens were placed on the table.
The emperor appeared to observe the test.
Tea and soup were served by the maids of the palace.
Candidates in the lower grade examinations were lucky to get a few drops of water from their ink slabs. The lips of many were dyed black. Such measures were largely concerned with the prevention of cheating.
Before announcement of the list of successful candidates, the papers on shih and fu submitted were carefully reviewed by the ministry of Lii. Other papers were not subject to this regulation. Many of the shih and fu written by the successful candidates were highly rated in those days but are seldom read now. This example is the Crystal of the Confucius Temple by Tsui Shu.
Two towers open in the central position
Where a fire pearl (crystal) appears aloft.
In the night there are two moons in full size.
After dawn only a lonely single star!
Its light does not go out even under the bright sky
But becomes almost invisible when the clouds come.
We know it is a glorious dynasty.
The temple of the crystal, an article of tribute, was built by Lingyi, a little state in Annan.