The political history of China tells us that poetry has played varied roles since early times. Its functions were not necessarily the same from one dynasty to another. Poems from various parts of the country were collected by officials with the aim of determining public opinion toward the central administration. Poems were numerous. Three hundred and five were edited and compiled by Confucius in the Book of Poetry.
Though only a few of the poems are didactical, the Book of Poetry became a Bible of moral instruction. Confucius first pointed out the importance of poetry from the ethical point of view. Later many of his followers and such philosophers as Mencius, Hsun Tzu, Mo Tzu and Lu Pu-wei often sought backing for their political ideas by quoting a few poems from the Book of Poetry. This was often the case in the period of the Warring States.
No new poems were produced in Ch'in times. The Book of Poetry was among those ordered burned. Anyone discussing the Book of Poetry or Book of History could be put to death. The First Emperor of Ch'in opposed poetry. But in 211 B.C., two years after the burning of the books, an engraving of words denouncing the First Emperor was found in the eastern region. The Emperor thereupon had asked a scholar to write a poem to be circulated throughout the country. Shih Huang-ti recognized the usefulness of poetry for purposes of political propaganda.
Liu Pang, although only a village constable, was to be China's next ruler. He had been defeated on several occasions but entered Henyang, the capital, and called the people together. He named his dynasty the Han and gave the people a three-article Yo Fa or constitution as follows:
The murderer should receive capital punishment,
Both the wound-inflicter and robber
Have to be chastised for crime as atonement.
This was in perfect rhyme, short but precise. It is easy to commit to memory. It helped bring about social order after many years of chaos.
Although Liu Pang did not learn poetry and literature systematically, he seemed enthusiastic in playing politics with poetry. When he returned to his native city, he entertained the elders with a feast. He taught a group of more than 100 children to sing. He himself wrote a chant for them: "The Great Wind."
When the great wind begins to blow,
The clouds fly and scatter.
I gained power to reign over the land.
To my native village now I return.
But where could I find good soldiers
To protect well all the four quarters?
This song has been cited by rulers of succeeding dynasties and scholars and poets of the later generations. In the final combat, Liu Pang ordered Tsoo songs to be chanted around his enemy's camp. Taken by surprise, Hsiang Yu gave up his battle for the throne. In the presence of Lady Yu, his favorite, he wrote a pathetic poem known as the Song of Kaihsia.
My strength was able to root up a mountain
With Vigorous constitution overshadowing the age.
But the times are unfavorable.
For my horse does not trot.
My horse does not trot.
What can I do?
Oh! Lady Yu, Oh! Lady Yu,
For me what can you do?
Hsiang Yu took his own life. Liu Pang became the first ruler of Han. Poetry began to nourish and develop.
There was an office known as Yuehfu, or House of Tunes, enjoined with the duty of collecting music. The Li Siao was popular. Nobles of the Han were fond of writing poems in this form because they came from Tsoo, the birthplace of Li Siao. The first ruler and his successors contributed much to the collection of songs. (Han Wu-ti enlarged the organization of the House of Tunes by appointing a distinguished scholar as the rhythm-harmonizer, an official not unlike a modern composer.) Chang Chien went to Central Asia and brought back pieces of music. The rhythm-harmonizer improved on the tunes.
Wu-ti excelled in strategy and poetry, having surrounded himself with both military geniuses and brilliant scholars. He stemmed barbarian invasions and penetrated westward as far as the Caspian Sea. Barbarians raided borderlands seeking silk and other plunder. The Chinese army consisting mostly of infantry, was at a disadvantage against the invaders' cavalry. Wu-ti began to employ cavalry of his own. When a beautiful horse was presented to him by the tribes of Tawa, he made this verse.
This fleet horse from the far west
Has passed a terrain of ten thousand li, arriving at our glorious land.
With prestige I have kept the foreign countries in awe.
And crossed the deserts to have a considerable number of barbarians
brought into submission.
Wu-ti ordered this sung at the palace. Formerly he was supposed to have had a supernatural horse. A poem about it was considered too difficult for ordinary people to understand. So the few lines to the gift horse were easily comprehended.
Wu-ti had expanded China's territory in west and south and routed the barbarians. His domain was as large as that of the Roman Empire. Then his government turned clumsy and inefficient system. Restless elements were ready to join Prince Hwainan in revolt against the central authority. Wu-ti had recourse to poetry. He called for a "rhyme-pol conference." The cabinet was to discuss political matters at the same time political verses were being written.
Wu-ti favored the "liaison verse" to promote political cooperation. This is something like a link verse. Each participant made up a line in the same rhythm. The first meeting took place in the Pailiang Tower to celebrate pacification of the four counties and Korea in 108 B.C. Only those who could make verses were allowed to take seats. The participants numbered 26, including the emperor. He took the lead in making up a line and chanting. The others then followed one after another.
Wu-ti: Harmonious are the four seasons with the host of the Heaven.
Prince Liang: Taking a four-horse chariot, I came from outport to attend
the meeting.
Grand minister of war: Under my command the imperial infantry and
cavalry can be used as bodyguards.
Premier: Directing national affairs, I encounter a lot of difficulties.
Generalissimo: To pacify the barbarians within the four seas is not an easy
task.
Each composed his verse on a subject connected with his duty - censorship, imperial family regulations, keeping of the peace, food production and preservation, international assemblies, etc.
Magistrates of the two adjacent counties and the mayor of the metropolis gave their views. All painted a dark picture. The two adjacent counties and the metropolis combined were called Sanfu, the Three Protection areas. These lines reveal the general situation.
Left county magistrate: The existence of bandits in Sanfu is threatening the imperial peace.
Right county magistrate: The brigands who are bottling up Nansan cause harm to the people.
Metropolitan mayor: The waichia (Imperial Mother's family) and the princesses of the Imperial Family are hard to bring under control.
From the lines of the grand minister of war, the premier and the generalissimo, we have the impression that the country was not so stable. The barbarians were making trouble. Areas with in the Great Metropolis were also subject to the menace of bandits and had to cope with the troublemaking Waichia and princesses. In the Han dynasty, relations between men and women were not so strictly regulated as in later generations. This was also true in the Imperial Family.
However, in the last two lines of liaison poetry, we find a happy conclusion reached by Kuo, a retainer, and Tungfang Shuo, an attending officer. Both were resourceful in humor and they were Wu-ti's favorites. When Princess Tao fell in love with Tung Ten, a coachman, Tung-fang Shuo opposed allowing the coachman to take part in a great entertainment given by Wu-ti. The Emperor did not argue but gave him valuable rewards. At the conference, Tung-fang Shuo and the retainer Kuo showed the tincture of their wittiness.
The retainer Kuo: To bite the princess's lip is as sweet as sugar.
Tung-fang Shuo: Being forced to make a line, I feel very awkward.
This liaison poem produced at the Pailiang Tower was called Pailiang verse and was imitated in later times, mainly for political purposes.