I. History of Immigration
The Chinese started to migrate to Australia long time ago. As early as 1849, Chinese residents in the State of New South Wales numbered 270, mostly in the employ of the British ranchers. During the early years, the majority of Chinese immigrants came from Fukien Province. It was the British Consulate at Amoy that played an important part in enlisting these Chinese workmen through local agents. Purely for mercenary gains, these agents tried all means to enlist their fellow countrymen for work in Australia. Before embarking for their destinations, the laborers were asked to sign contracts which obliged them to work abroad three years for their employers. Thus thousands of Chinese youths set out for Australia to embark on their adventures. But, as soon as they had arrived, they found that they had been imposed upon. Their despairs and dissatisfactions resulted in numerous, conflicts between them and the employers which left, more or less, unfavorable impressions in the minds of the Aussies.
Nearly all the early Chinese immigrants to Australia set sail from Amoy, Hongkong, or Singapore. Those who embarked from Amoy or Hongkong settled eventually in New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland; while those from Singapore inhabited the cities on the west coast of Australia.
II. Discovery of Gold Mines
The large-scale Chinese immigration began with 1851 when gold mines were discovered in the States of Victoria and New South Wales. China was then in the throes of the Taiping Rebellion, and hundreds of farmers, workmen and craftsmen were forced to leave their home towns to seek their fortune elsewhere. Melbourne, in their eyes, seemed to be an ideal paradise and was, therefore, called "Shin Chin Shan," which, in Chinese, means new gold mountain. According to reliable sources, Chinese immigrants from Amoy ran, in 1851-52, as high as 2,666. After reaching Melbourne, they set forth afoot in groups for the mine areas with their gear. In the meantime, Britons and other Europeans also went there for exploration. Nevertheless, owing to their unremitting efforts and perseverance, the Chinese often excelled the Europeans in their work, which inevitably gave rise to jealousy in the long run.
III. Toils and Struggles
Bendigo in Victoria State is famous for its gold mines and a large number of overseas Chinese migrated there. Apart from mining, they went into the business field. They also ran barber's shops, teahouses, restaurants, etc. with great success. But, on the other hand, their prosperity has also aroused others jealousy. In 1854, a violent movement against the overseas Chinese was fermented but was suppressed by the local authorities.
However, the speedy expansion of the Chinese led eventually to the formation of the discriminatory legislation by the local governments. In 1855, the Government of Victoria State issued a set of restrictive regulations on the entry of Chinese nationals. Later on, the Governments of New South Wales and Queensland took the same step. On July 4, 1857, the Europeans assembled on the bank of Cuckland River and attacked the Chinese workmen. In 1861, a similar attack was made on the Chinese at Lambing, resulting in many casualties. The Chinese residents were greatly shocked and petitioned to the local authorities for redress. As a result, the attitude of the local governments began to take a more friendly turn toward the overseas Chinese.
IV. Protection by the Manchu Government
Since the discovery of gold mines, Chinese immigrants in Australia increased with the lapse of years. The incessant bloody incidents began to engage the attention of the Manchu Government. General Wang Yung-ho was therefore sent abroad to look over the situation of Chinese nationals in Southeast Asia and Australia. He arrived at Sydney in May, 1887. After his return, he made proposals to the Chinese Government to set up a consulate at Sydney and take active actions for the protection of the overseas Chinese.
In response to General Wang's suggestion, the Chinese government lodged several protests with the British government against the ill-treatment of the Chinese residents by the Australian authorities and stressed that these processes were contradictory to the spirit of the Sino-British Treaty. But, the state governments in Australia held that restrictions on the immigration of aliens were entirely within the scope of their domestic affairs. As a result, the official protests did not take apparent effects on the situation of the overseas Chinese.
V. Attitude of the Australian Authorities
The state governments of Australia held two plenary conferences in 1880 and 1888, dealing with the immigration issues. Afterwards, the immigration regulations of the states were revised and made more stricter. Under such hard circumstances, the number of Chinese residents fell during 1888-1901 from some 45,000 to 32,000.
The need for the unification of immigration in all states accounted, to a large extent, for the establishment of the federal government of Australia in 1901. Immediately after the setup of the federal government, a national immigration law was promulgated which continued the discrimination against the Chinese. Under this law, any alien desirous for entry must meet the requirements of linguistic proficiency. By "linguistic proficiency" it was meant that those who failed to write 50 words of any kind of languages assigned by the government officers were denied to enter Australia. With all minor textual changes since its first promulgation, the essentials of this law remain, however, intact. According to the existing regulations, overseas Chinese born in Australia are entitled to the right for permanent residence. But, permission for entry of the Chinese are limited to only: (1) importers and exporters, (2) market gardeners, their assistants and heirs, (3) cooks in Chinese restaurants, (4) students, (5) travellers, (6) private tutors, etc.
VI. Chinese Enterprises and Communities
In early years, most Chinese in Australia were engaged in mining. Later on, they transferred themselves to fishery and business field. A number of them were employed by the local governments for construction works. Their labor has contributed greatly to the construction of railways, highways and bridges in Australia.
In 1877, a drought happened in Queensland State and the output of the local gold consequently decreased. Chinese workmen there had to transfer themselves to agricultural work. In 1879, Andrew Leon, a well-known Chinese, initiated a company with the capital of 2500 pounds and 100 shareholders. The company purchased 300 acres for the planting of cotton, rice, banana, sugar cane and other vegetables. In spite of its seeming prosperity at the outset, the company was declared bankrupt in 1886 because of the shortage of workmen and the restrictions of the local laws.
Overseas Chinese in 1880's also witnessed a boom in their furniture-making in Australia. Because of the exquisite designs and nice styles, their handicraft work was quite welcome to the local residents. In 1880, the number of Chinese furniture stores in Melbourne ran as high as 100. In 1888, the majority of 700 furniture stores were run by overseas Chinese. However, under the limitation of the law, in recent years, this enterprise is on the wane.
The Wing On and Wing San Companies at Sydney, running the wholesale of fruits and vegetables, were set up by the local Chinese. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Chinese in Australia invested a lot of capital in enterprises in their mother country. Wing On and Sincere Companies came in to existence in Shanghai to be earliest department stores in China.
In 1917, the Chinese nationals in Australia, Hongkong and other Southeast Asia, organized the China Australia Steamship Company. With the capital of ￡100,000, the company possessed several steamships for regularly sailing between Australia and Hongkong.
Overseas Chinese nearly had the monopoly of the marketing of fruits and vegetables in Australia. Vendors in the markets of Melbourne and Sydney are mostly Chinese. But, under recent government regulations, new Chinese immigrants are not allowed to engage in this trade.
The Chinese have also done well in laundry and restaurant business. In Sydney alone, their restaurants number more than 100. As to embroidery, Chinese workmanship is also popular with the Aussies. Since the First World War, they have gradually had a hand in the local import and export enterprises. In recent years, Chinese import and export companies have greatly increased in number.
Native-born Chinese in Australia, with their right for permanent residence, are not restricted in their vocations as the ordinary immigrants. Most of them have received high education and taken up their professions as lawyers, accountants, engineers, medical doctors and government officers. Their achievements give their countrymen a cause of pride.
Chinese communities spread over the whole of Australia, the earliest of which dated back to 1856. In the 19th century, they served as the meeting place for the local Chinese. On festival days, the Chinese would hold their celebrations according to their own custom. But, recently, because of the contagion of the Western civilization, these festive entertainments have lost their original glamour.
VII. Overseas Chinese and Their Mother Country
The Chinese in Australia are very patriotic. During the early revolution against the Manchu Government in 1911 and the resistance against Japanese in World War II, they contributed, in no small amount, their financial and moral support to their mother country. Since the occupation of the China Mainland by the Communists in 1950, their devotion to the cause of freedom has remained unchanged and recently, students returning to Taiwan for college education have greatly increased. And, to keep up their centripetal tendency, it is the duty of our government to take effective actions for the protection of their legal rights.