Taiwan Today

Hsun Tzu is a philosopher all but unknown in the West and long neglected in China. Yet he is the third great Confucianist (along with Mencius and the Sage himself) and a thinker of originality and considerable power.

Little of his life is known with any certainty. Tentative dates are from 298 to 238 B.C. He was an official in the states of Ch'i and Ch'u. His pupils included Han Fei, the Legalist, and Li Ssu, the prime minister who assisted the First Emperor of the Ch'in in unifying China.

He lived at a momentous time in Chinese history. During his lifetime, the Chou dynasty came to end. Unification (221) was only a few years away. He could see that the dreams of the earlier Confucianists were empty. There was going to be no return to an older order of perfection. He was compelled to move in the direction of hard-headed realism.

Hsun Tzu had the advantage of being able to look back over the whole of the Classical period. He could borrow as he wished from earlier systems. He did so in the 32 chapters of the Hsun Tzu, which is a much more organized work than the fragments of Confucius and Mencius that have come down to us. Earlier philosophers had relied principally on the oral instruction of their disciples. Hsun Tzu was among the first to write essays for posterity.

He devoted much of his writing to attacks on the superstitions which were so prevalent in his time. He rejected magic and por tents in favor of a rational, naturalistic view of man and his universe. His system rejects a Heaven which rewards or punishes a ruler according to his record. For this he substituted a mechanical process that is independent of the doings of man. He also reinterpreted the old sacrifices and funeral rites as expressions of grief rather than of metaphysics. He was one of the fathers of semantics.

Hsun Tzu used the same legendary figures of the past that Confucius and Mencius had. But he didn't set them up as paragons to whom the present had to return. For him, men were men and time didn't matter so much. "The beginnings of Heaven and earth-it is today," he said. "The ways of the hundred ancient kings are those of the later kings." What matters is to understand the basic principles of human nature and society, and to discriminate between the wise and the foolish.

What raises man above the beasts? Only the ability to distinguish between good and bad, between wisdom and stupidity, said Hsun Tzu. Mencius maintained that all were born good and became bad only when their goodness was abused or neglected. Hsun Tzu went all the way in the opposite direction. In a famous and controversial essay, he maintained that by nature men were bad and that they acquire goodness only through proper training. For Mencius, learning was a seeking of the lost heart of childhood innocence. For Hsun Tzu, education was the only road to salvation. All of the good of society is to be found in the sages' teaching that man must exercise social restraint and develop the faculty of discrimination in order to train and direct his crude animal nature.

Mencius and Hsun Tzu agreed that men could attain perfect virtue through study and imitation of the sages. The essential difference was the philosophical and theoretical one of whether you start from the bad and move toward good or whether you start from good and necessarily suffer an admixture of some bad. In the run of history, however, men preferred Mencius. It seemed too shocking to start with an evil nature. Hsun Tzu was fairly popular in Han times but by the T'ang and Sung eras he had nearly dropped from sight.
Mencius' Garden of Paradise beginning bad carried the day.

Concerning Heaven

These are selections from the Hsun Tzu:

Chapter 17: Concerning Heaven—

Heaven operates with constant regularity. It does not prevail because of (sage-king) Yao; nor does it cease to prevail because of (tyrant) Chieh. Respond to it with good government, and blessings will result; respond to it with misgovernment, and misfortune will result. If the staples of livelihood are built up and used economically, then Heaven cannot impoverish the country; if the sustenance of the people is provided for and their energies are employed in keeping with the seasons, then Heaven cannot afflict the people. If the Way is followed and not deviated from, then Heaven cannot send misfortune. Under such circumstances, flood or drought cannot cause a famine, extreme cold or heat cannot cause any malady, and unnatural apparitions cannot cause disaster. On the other hand, if the staples of livelihood are neglected and used extravagantly, then Heaven cannot cause the country to be rich. If the sustenance of the people is deficient and their energies are employed inordinately, then Heaven cannot make the people healthful. If the Way is violated and conduct becomes unseemly, then Heaven cannot send blessings. Under such circumstances, even if flood and drought do not come, there will be famine; even if cold and heat have not become oppressive, there will be maladies; even if unnatural apparitions do not appear, there will be calamities. Seasonableness and prosperity go together; catastrophy and prosperity do not. It is useless to complain against Heaven, for such is the Way. Hence he who knows the distinctive function of Heaven and of men may be called a great sage.

To accomplish without exertion and to obtain without effort, this is what is meant by the office of Heaven. Therefore although the mind of the sage is deep, he will not deliberate on the Way of Heaven; although it is great, he will not scrutinize it -this is what is meant by refraining from contesting with Heaven. Heaven has its seasons; earth has its resources; man has his government. This is how man is able to form a triad with Heaven and earth. If man should neglects own part in this triad and put all his hope in Heaven and earth with which he forms the triad, he is making a grave mistake.

Yin, Yang Mutations

The fixed stars make their revolutions; the sun and moon alternately shine; the four seasons succeed one another; the yin and yang go through their great mutations; the wind and rain affect all things. The myriad things acquire their proper harmony and thus grow; each thing obtains its proper nourishment and thus attains its full maturity. We do not see the cause of these occurrences, but we do see their effects - we call it the efficacy of spirit. We all know the results achieved, but we do not know the invisible source - we call it the work of Heaven. It is only the sage that does not seek to know Heaven.

Heaven does not suspend the winter because men dislike cold; the earth does not reduce its expanse because men dislike distances; the gentleman does not alter his conduct because inferior men make a clamor. Heaven has a constant way of action; earth has a constant size; the gentleman has a constant demeanor. The gentleman conducts himself according to a constant principle, but the inferior man schemes after results. It is said in the Book of Odes: "If a person acts according to the rules of decorum and righteousness, and does not deviate from them why should he be anxious about people's talk?" This expresses what I mean.

The King of Ch'u has a thousand chariots following him—this is not because he is wise. The gentleman eats pulse and drinks water—this is not because he is foolish. In each case, it is just what is fitting to the external circumstances. Whereas for a person to have his purpose cultivated, to have his virtuous conduct strengthened, to have his knowledge and deliberations clarified, to live in this age but to emulate the ancients—this is what lies entirely within his power. Therefore the gentleman carefully develops what is within his power and does not desire what is from Heaven. The inferior man neglects what is within his power, and seeks for what comes from Heaven. Because the gentleman carefully develops what is within his power, and does not desire what comes from Heaven, he progresses every day; whereas because the inferior man neglects what is within his power and seeks for what comes from Heaven, he degenerates every day. Therefore, it is one and the same reason why the gentleman progresses daily and why the inferior man degenerates daily. And this also accounts for the difference between the gentleman and the inferior man.

When stars fall or the sacred trees groan, all the people become afraid and ask: "What is the significance of all this?" I would say: There is no special significance. This is just due to a modification of Heaven and earth and the mutation of the yin and yang. These are rare phenomena. We may marvel at them, but we should not fear them. For there is no age that has not often experienced eclipses of the sun and moon, unseasonable rain or wind, or occasional appearances of strange stars. If the ruler is intelligent and the government just, even though these phenomena should occur all at once, it would do no harm. If the ruler is unintelligent and his government is bent on evil, although not one of these strange phenomena should occur, still it would be of no help. Hence the falling of stars and the groaning of the sacred trees are due to the modification of Heaven and earth and the mutation of the yin and yang. These are rare phenomena. We may marvel at them, but we should not fear them.

Human Portents

Of all occurrences and phenomena, human portents are the most to be feared. To plow improperly so as to injure the crops, to weed improperly so as to miss the harvest, to govern improperly so as to lose the allegiance of the people, to leave the fields uncultivated and to harvest poor crops, to let the price of grain rise high and the people starve and die on the roadside—these are what I mean by human portents. When the governmental measures and orders are not clear and just; when decisions of the state are not opportune; when the fundamental tasks are not attended to these are what I mean by human portents. When the rules of decorum and righteousness are not cultivated, the inhabitants of the inner and outer quarters are not kept apart, and men and women become promiscuous, parents and children distrust each other, the ruler and ruled are at cross purposes, and invasion and disaster arrive at the same time—these are what I mean by human portents.

If people pray for rain and it rains, how is that? I would say: Nothing in particular. Just as when people do not pray for rain, it also rains. When people try to save the sun or moon from being swallowed up (in eclipse), or when they pray for rain in a drought, or when they decide an important affair only after divination—this is not because they think in this way they will get what they seek, but only to add a touch of ritual to it. Hence the gentleman takes it as a matter of ritual, whereas the common man thinks it is supernatural. He who takes it as a matter of ritual will suffer no harm; he who thinks it is supernatural will suffer harm.

You exalt Heaven and mediate on it:
Why not domesticate and regulate it?

You obey Heaven and sing praises to it:
Why not control its course and employ it?

You look on the seasons with expectation and await them:
Why not seize the seasonal opportunities and exploit them?

You rely on things increasing of themselves:
Why not exercise your ability and multiply them?

You speculate about the nature of things:
Why not manipulate them so that you do not lose them?

You admire the cause of the birth of things:
Why not assist them in their completion?

Hence, I say, to neglect human effort and speculate about Heaven,
Is to miss the true nature of all things.

Man Is Born Evil

Chapter 23: Human Nature Is Evil—

The nature of man is evil; his goodness is acquired.

His nature being what it is, man is born, first, with a desire for gain. If this desire is followed, strife will result and courtesy will disappear. Second, man is born with envy and hate. If these tendencies are followed, injury and cruelty will abound and loyalty and faithfulness will disappear. Third, man is born with passions of the ear and eye as well as the love of sound and beauty. If these passions are followed, excesses and disorderliness will spring up and decorum and righteousness will disappear. Hence to give rein to man's original nature and to yield to man's emotions will assuredly lead to strife and disorderliness, and he will revert to a state of barbarism. Therefore it is only under the influence of teachers and laws and the guidance of the rulers of decorum and righteousness that courtesy will be observed, etiquette respected, and order restored. From all this it is evident that the nature of man is evil and that his goodness is acquired.

Crooked wood needs to undergo steaming and bending by the carpenter's tools; then only is it straight. Blunt metal needs to undergo grinding and whetting; then only is it sharp. Now the original nature of man is evil, so he must submit himself to teachers and laws before he can be just; he must submit himself to the rules of decorum and righteousness before he can be orderly. On the other hand, without teachers and laws, men are biased and unjust; without decorum and righteousness, men are rebellious and disorderly. In ancient times the sage-kings knew that man's nature was evil and therefore biased and unjust, rebellious, and disorderly. Thereupon they created the codes of decorum and righteousness and established laws and ordinances in order to bend the nature of man and set it right, and in order to transform his nature and guide it. All men are thus made to conduct themselves in a manner that is orderly and in accordance with the Way. At present, those men who are influenced by teachers and laws, who have accumulated culture and learning, and who are following the paths of decorum and righteousness, are the gentlemen. On the other hand, those who give rein to their nature, who indulge in their willfulness, and who disregard decorum and righteousness, are the inferior men. From all this it is evident that the nature of man is evil and that his goodness is acquired.

Character Is Learned

Mencius says: "The reason man is ready to learn is that his nature is originally good." I reply: This is not so. This is due to a lack of knowledge about the original nature of man and of understanding of the distinction between what is natural and what is acquired. Original nature is a heavenly endowment; it cannot be learned, and it cannot be striven after. As to rules of decorum and righteousness, they have been brought forth by the sages, they can be attained by learning, and they can be achieved by striving. That which cannot be learned and cannot be striven after and rests with Heaven is what I call original nature. That which can be attained by learning and achieved by striving and rests with man is what I call acquired character. This is the distinction between original nature and acquired character. Now by the nature of man, the eye has the faculty of seeing and the ear has the faculty of hearing. But the keenness of the faculty of sight is inseparable from the eye, and the keenness of the faculty of hearing is inseparable from the ear. It is evident that keenness of sight and keenness of bearing cannot be learned.

Mencius says: "The original nature of man is good; but because men all ruin it and lose it, it becomes evil." I reply: In this he is gravely mistaken. Regarding the nature of man, as soon as he is born, he tends to depart from its original state and depart from its natural disposition, and he is bent on ruining it and losing it. From all this, it is evident that the nature of man is evil and that his goodness is acquired.

To say that man's original nature is good means that it can become beautiful without leaving its original state and can become beneficial without leaving its natural disposition. This is to maintain that beauty pertains to the original state and disposition and goodness pertains to the heart and mind in the same way as the keenness of the faculty of sight is inseparable from the eye and the keenness of the faculty of hearing is inseparable from the ear, just as we say that the eye is keen in seeing or the ear is keen in bearing. Now as to the nature of man, when he is hungry he desires to be filled, when he is cold he desires warmth, when he is tired he desires rest. This is man's natural disposition. But now a man may be hungry and yet in the presence of elders he dare not be the first to eat. This is because he has to yield precedence to someone. He may be tired and yet he dare not take a rest. This is because he has to labor in the place of someone. For a son to yield to his father and a younger brother to labor in the place of his older brother - both of these kinds of actions are opposed to man's original nature and contrary to man's feeling. Yet they are the way of the filial son and in accordance with the rules of decorum and righteousness. It appears if a person follows his natural disposition he will show no courtesy, and if he shows courtesy he is acting contrary to his natural disposition. From all this it is evident that the nature of man is evil and that his goodness is acquired.

Acquisition of Virtue

It may be asked: "If man's original nature is evil, whence do the rules of decorum and righteousness arise?" I reply: All rules of decorum and righteousness are the product of the acquired virtue of the sage and not the products of the nature of man. Thus, the potter presses the clay and makes the vessel but the vessel is the product of the potter's acquired skill and not the product of his original nature. Or again, the craftsman hews pieces of wood and makes utensils-but utensils are the products of the carpenter's acquired skill and not the product of his original nature. The sage gathers many ideas and thoughts and becomes well versed in human affairs in order to bring forth the rules of decorum and righteousness and establish laws and institutions. So then the rules of decorum and righteousness and laws and institutions are similarly the products of the acquired virtue of the sage and not the products of his original nature.

Man wishes to be good because his nature is evil. If a person is unimportant he wishes to be important, if he is ugly he wishes to be beautiful, if he is confined he wishes to be at large, if he is poor he wishes to be rich, if he is lowly he wishes to be honored - whatever a person does not have within himself, he seeks from without. But the rich do not wish for wealth and the honorable do not wish for position, for whatever a person has within himself he does not seek from without. From this it may be seen that man wishes to be good because his nature is evil. Now the original nature of man is really without decorum and righteousness, hence he strives to learn and seeks to obtain them.

Reforming Influence

Straight wood does not require the carpenter's tools to be straight; by nature it is straight. Crooked wood needs to undergo steaming and bending by the carpenter's tools and then only will it be straight; by nature it is not straight. As the nature of man is evil, it must be submitted to the government of the sage-kings and the reforming influence of the rules of decorum and righteousness; then only will everyone issue forth in orderliness and be in accordance with goodness. From all this it is evident that the nature of man is evil and that his goodness is acquired.

It may be objected: "Decorum and righteousness and the accumulation of acquired virtues must be in the nature of man so that the sage could bring them forth." I reply: This is not so. Now the potter pounds and molds the clay and produces earthenware. Are the earthenware and clay then in the nature of the potter? The workman hews a piece of wood and makes utensils. Are furniture and wood then in the nature of the carpenter? So it is with the sage and decorum and righteousness; be produces them in the same way as earthenware is produced. Are decorum and righteousness and the accumulation of acquired virtues then in the original nature of man? As far as the nature of man is concerned, the sage-kings Yao and Shun have the same nature as the wicked King Chieh and robber Chih; the gentleman has the same nature as the inferior man. Should we now regard decorum and righteousness and the accumulation of acquired virtues as being in the nature of man, then why should we prize the sage-kings Yao and Yu and why should we prize the gentlemen? We prize Yao, Yu and gentlemen because they were able to transform nature and produce acquired virtue, and from acquired virtue decorum and righteousness issued forth.

Perfectability of Man

There is a saying: "The man on the street can become a Yu." How would you account for that? I reply: All that made Yu what he was was that he instituted humanity and righteousness, laws, and government. However, there are principles by which humanity and righteousness, laws and government can be known and practiced. At the same time any man on the street has the faculty for knowing them and has the capacity for practicing them. Thus it is evident that he can become a Yu. Should we assume there were really no principles by which humanity and righteousness, laws and government could be known and practiced, then even Yu would not be able to know them or practice them. Or, should we assume the man on the street really had no faculty for knowing humanity and righteousness, laws and government, or the capacity for practicing them, then the man cannot know, on the one hand, the proper relation between father and son and, on the other, the proper discipline between sovereign and minister. Thus it is evident that the man on the street does have the faculty for knowing and the capacity for practicing these virtues. Now let the man on the street take his faculty for knowing and his capacity for practicing humanity and righteousness, laws and government, and bring them to bear upon the principles by which these virtues can be known and can be practiced—then it is self-evident that he can become a Yu. Yes, let the man on the street pursue the path of knowledge and devote himself to learning, with concentration of mind and a singleness of purpose; let him think, search, examine, and re-examine, day in and day out, with persistence and patience - let him thus accumulate good works without cease, then he may be counted among the gods and may form a triad with Heaven and earth. Hence sagehood is a state that any man can achieve by cumulative effort.

Whence the Rules

Chapter 19: On the Rules of Decorum—

Whence do the rules of decorum arise? From the fact that men are born with desires, and when these desires are not satisfied, men are bound to pursue their satisfaction. When the pursuit is carried on unrestrained and unlimited, there is bound to be contention. With contention comes chaos; with chaos dissolution. The ancient kings disliked this chaos and set the necessary limits by codifying rules of decorum and righteousness, so that men's desire might be satisfied and their pursuit be gratified. In this way it was made certain that desires were not frustrated by things, nor things used up by desires. That these two should support each other and should thrive together - this is whence the rules of decorum arise
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Rites (li) rest on three bases: Heaven and earth, which are the source of all life; the ancestors, who are the source of the human race; sovereigns and teachers, who are the source of government. If there were no Heaven and earth, where would life come from? If there were no ancestors, where would the offspring come from? If there were no sovereigns and teachers, where would government come from? Should any of the three be missing, either there would be no men or men would be without peace. Hence rites are to serve Heaven on high and earth below, and to honor the ancestors and elevate the sovereigns and teachers.

In general, rites begin with primitive practices, attain cultured forms, and finally achieve beauty and felicity. When rites are at their best, men's emotions and sense of beauty are both fully expressed. When they are at the next level, either the emotion or the sense of beauty oversteps the other. When they are at still the next level, emotion reverts to the state of primitivity.

Culture Produces Rites

It is through rites that Heaven and earth are harmonious and sun and moon are bright, that the four seasons are ordered and the stars are on their courses, that rivers flow and that things prosper, that love and hatred are tempered and joy and anger are in keeping. They cause the lowly to be obedient and the high to be illustrious. He who holds to the rites is never confused in the midst of multifarious change; he who deviates therefrom is lost. Rites-are they not the culmination of culture?

Rites require us to treat both life and death with attentiveness. Life is the beginning of man, death his end. When a man is well off both at the end and the beginning, the way of man is fulfilled. Hence the gentleman respects the beginning and is carefully attentive to the end. To pay equal attention to the end as well as to the beginning is the way of the gentleman and the beauty of rights and righteousness.

Rites serve to shorten that which is too long and lengthen that which is too short, reduce that which is too much and augment that which is too little, express the beauty of love and reverence and cultivate the elegance of righteous conduct. Therefore, beautiful adornment and coarse sackcloth, music and weeping. rejoicing and sorrow, though pairs of opposites, are in the rites equally utilized and alternately brought into play. Beautiful adornment, music, and rejoicing are appropriate on occasions of felicity; coarse sack cloth, weeping, and sorrow are appropriate on occasions of ill-fortune.

Shades of Korzybski

Chapter 22: On the Correct Use of Terminology—

Now that the sage-kings are no more, the preserving of names has become lax, strange terminology has arisen, and names and their actualities have become confused. As the standards of truth and falsehood are in distinct, even officials who maintain the law and scholars who study by themselves and teach others are likewise in a state of confusion. Should some king arise, he would have to retain certain old names and create certain new names. Thus it is imperative for him to examine: (1) the reason for having names; (2) the conditions under which agreement and difference in names arise; and (3) the fundamental principles for instituting names.

Different forms are received by the mind and people are equally at a loss; different things are entangled when names and their actualities are intertwined; noble and base are not clearly differentiated, similarities and differences are not distinguished - if this should be the case, there would certainly be the danger of people's ideas not being understood and their affairs being hampered and handicapped. Therefore, the wise man institutes names severally to denote their actualities, thus, on the one hand, noble and base are differentiated, and on the other, similarities and differences are distinguished. As noble and base are differentiated and similarities and differences are distinguished, there is no longer the danger of people's ideas not being understood or of people's affairs being hampered and handicapped. This is the reason for having names.

Like With Like

What then are the conditions under which agreement and difference in names arise? They are the natural senses. All that are of the same kind and have the same feelings have the same natural senses with which to perceive things. Therefore things are compared and classified, and those that are found to be approximately alike are grouped together. In this way they share the same name and claim each other. Forms and bodies, colors and designs, are distinctions made by the eye. "Clear" and "confused" qualities and big small volumes of sound as well as noises, are distinctions made by the ear (and so on for senses of taste, smell, and touch). Happy and morose moods, pleasure and anger, sorrow and joy, love and hate, as well as desires, are distinctions made by the mood.

The mind has the faculty of responsive knowledge. By this responsive knowledge it is possible to know sounds through the ear and to know forms through the eye. However, the faculty of responsive knowledge is dependent on the objects being first noted and classified by the senses. When the five senses note something but do not comprehend it, and the mind responds to it but has no designation, then everyone says there is no knowledge. These then, are the conditions under which agreement and difference in names arise.

General to Particular

Accordingly, names are given to things. All that are alike are given the same name; all that are unlike are given different names. When a simple term is sufficient to convey the meaning, a simple term is used; when a simple term is insufficient, a compound term is used. When simple and compound concepts do not conflict, the general term may be used; although it is a general term, there is no harm in using it. Knowing that different actualities should have different names, one should let all actualities that are different have nothing other than different terms; thus there could not be any confusion. Likewise one should let all actualities that are alike have nothing other than the same name.

For although the myriad things are innumerable, there are times when we wish to speak of them all in general, and so we call them "things". "Things" is a great general term. We press on and generalize; we generalize and generalize still more, until we reach that beyond which there is nothing more general; then only we stop. There are times when we wish to speak of things in classes, and so we say "birds and beasts". "Birds and beasts" is a great particular term. We press on and particularize; we particularize and particularize still more, until we reach that beyond which there is nothing more particular, and then only we stop.

There are no names necessarily appropriate of themselves. Upon agreement things were named. When the agreement has been made and it has become customary, that is called an appropriate designation. That which is different from what has been agreed upon is called an inappropriate designation. Names have no actualities necessarily corresponding to them. Upon agreement things were named. When the agreement has been made and it has become customary, such names are called names appropriate to actualities. But some names are inherently felicitous. When a name is simple, direct, easily understood, and not contradictory, it is called a felicitous name.

There are things which have the same appearance but are in different places; there are things which have different appearances but are in the same place. The distinction is easily made. Things which have the same appearance but are in different places, al though they may be classified together, arc to be called two actualities. When the appearance changes, but the thing remains the same and is not different, this is to be called transformation. Where there is transformation but no differentiation, that is to be called one actuality. By this method objectives are investigated and their number is determined. These, then, are the fundamental principles for instituting names.