Taiwan Today

He bows and the three nod in reply. ''Please sit down," says the man in the middle. "Thank you," Tsai replies, and takes his seat.

"Please first give a 20-minufe self-introduction," the chief examiner says.

"Yes. My name is Tsai Wen-lung..."

So begins another oral test in Special Examination A—one of the ROC's national civil service examinations— this one held last December in Taipei. The goal of the oral test is not only to examine the specialized knowledge and leadership ability of candidates, but also to assess their manners, speech, and etiquette. This method of selecting qualified people for government posts is not a bureaucratic invention of the 20th Century. In fact, it has been practiced in various forms by the Chinese government for over 4,000 years.

Historians of ancient China suggest that the origin of the official examination system rests upon a statement made by Emperor Yao, who is said to have ascended the throne in 2255 B.C., when he was trying to determine the qualities of a potential successor. "Give him a test," he said; and Shun passed, making him the second Emperor.

This story from antiquity, passed down through generations of oral and written tradition, is the first instance of an oral test being used to judge fitness for government service—in this case, determining competence to rule.

Oral examinations were later bolstered with written examinations. These were initiated by Emperor Wen in 178 B.C., during the Western Han Dynasty (206-24 B.C), when he issued a mandate urging talented scholars throughout the country to present in writing their views on political reforms. But this request only stands as an early orientation toward written testing. The first examination system was not formally established until 132 A.D. At that time, Emperor Shun of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 A.D.), following the suggestion of his prime minister, introduced a form of literary examination based on Chinese classical texts. This was given to academy graduates who had been recommended for government posts.

The examination system took a major step toward institutionalization during the Sui Dynasty (589-618). In 605, Emperor Yang introduced an open and competitive 10-part examination system. In this sophisticated form, scholars who had already undergone a period of training in an imperial academy for officials of ministerial caliber were invited to vie for the chin shih (advanced scholar) degree prior to their appointment as local government officials.

This innovation paved the way for the civil service examination systems adopted in the following Tang, Sung, Yuan, Ming, and Ching Dynasties. Each dynasty made adjustments in emphasis on the type of literary writing determined best for selecting talent, such as poetic versification in the Tang, essay writing in the Sung, and a rather pedantic form called the "eight-legged essay" in the Ming and Ching Dynasties.

Despite this diversity, the various civil service examination systems over the centuries established and perfected a principle of fair competition among the country's intellectuals. The government, through an examination which was in most cases free from the political interference of an emperor or a prime minister, selected candidates of high caliber in a system characterized by fair play. The strict behind-closed-doors examinations, and the careful grading and eventual selection of successful candidates, were able in great measure to prevent opportunism and favoritism.

Even after the collapse of the imperial dynastic system in 1912 with the founding of the Republic of China, the efficacy of an official examination system for selecting worthy officials was still appreciated. Dr. Sun Yat-sen, the Founding Father of the ROC, devised a new civil service examination system for the young republic designed to meet the needs of a modernizing China. Today's system, managed by the Examination Yuan, one of the five branches (or Yuan) of the central government, is thus a refined tool, one based on 4,000 years of experience in judging personnel.

In accord with the ideals expressed by Dr. Sun, the Examination Yuan was formally established by the National Government in Nanking on January 6, 1930, after the unification of the country in 1928. This marked a new page in Chinese history. For the first time, the Chinese civil service examination system was exercised by an independent, permanent, specialized organization.

"Up to now, our civil service examination system has been functioning well," says Lin Chin-sheng, vice president of the Examination Yuan. "The recruitment, selection, employment, placement, and management of Chinese civil servants—high-ranking or low-ranking, appointed or elected—are all conducted through written examina­tions, oral tests, or screening of qualifications."

Lin explains what is meant by "independent"—"neither the Executive Yuan nor other institutions in this country can influence examination affairs," he explains. "Not even I can have any possible way to change or influence the result of an examination. It's absolutely fair."

The Chinese examination system covers two main fields: the Civil Service Examinations, and the Examinations for Pro­fessionals and Technologists (P/T).

For the former, Chinese citizens, male or female, within the required age limit and with the proper scholastic or self-educational background, can apply to take the examination most appropriate to them. Depending upon which examination they take, and the degree of their success, they can be appointed as junior, intermediate, or senior permanent officials; the highest senior permanent officials have the opportunity to become political appointees.

For the latter P/T examinations, candidates are tested for their qualifications to practice in specialized professions, or to determine whether they are qualified to practice as registered technologists. Categories of such personnel include lawyers, accountants, architects, engineers, doctors of Western or Chinese medicine, and transportation officers; certification for teachers, journalists, artists, and businessmen are not included in this form of examination. Chinese nationals who are qualified to take the Higher, Ordinary, or Special Examinations in this category receive licenses to practice after they prove themselves in the exams.

Foreigners who wish to practice as the above-mentioned professionals or technologists in the ROC, but who cannot take the examinations because of the language barrier, are given the opportunity for licensing on a reciprocal basis. They must first apply to the Ministry of Examination for a screening of their qualifications against the licenses or certificates issued by their own or other countries. Then, after having obtained their qualification certificates in the ROC from the Examination Yuan, they may apply to the related Chinese government agencies for issuance of licenses valid in the ROC.

Examinations for civil servants are conducted in coordination with the government's annual employment projects. These are initiated by the Ministry of Personnel under the Examination Yuan and the Bureau of Personnel Administration under the Executive Yuan, and are forwarded to the Ministry of Examination for action.

The examinations for civil servants and for professionals and technologists are generally conducted everyone or two years, but they can be scheduled more frequently in times of need. Fields open for testing, the examination subjects, and information about dates, times, and locations of exams are announced by the Ministry of Examination two months before the examinations.

"Thanks to this fair system, we have been providing a steady, continuous supply of competent manpower to all levels of government and society," Lin says. "And we intend to keep this system as a means of selecting the best talent to serve the country and the people."

Dr. Chang Jun-shu, professor of public administration and director of the Center for Public and Business Administration Education at National Chengchi University, also heartily endorses the ROC's examination system.

One of the major merits of the current examination system, Chang points out, is that it can correct the inherent defects of an election system. "Before the examination system was set up, only rich people could afford to run in an election," he says. "The poor, however ex­cellent they might be, had little chance of being elected and serving the people. The examination system gives everybody a fair chance to join the government and even be promoted to a high post."

Chang gives two examples—Hsu Shui-teh, incumbent Minister of the Interior, and Chiu Chuang-huan, incumbent Governor of the Taiwan Provincial Government. Hsu started his public service career by passing the Higher Examination while Chiu began his government career by passing the Qualifying Examination.

"In addition, younger talent like Dr. Ma Ying-jeoh, chairman of the Commission of Research, Development, and Evaluation, Dr. James Soong, secretary-general of the ruling party, and Dr. Fredrick Chien, chairman of the Council for Economic Planning and Development, were recruited by the government through Special Examination A," Chang adds. "The merit system provides everybody a fair chance to compete on equal footing, and the government can select the best talent from qualified candidates. "

A special feature of the ROC's examination system, which serves to cast a broader net for finding exceptional talent, is its Qualifying Examinations. "These are designed to encourage self-educated youths without official credentials to obtain the qualifications for taking Ordinary, Higher Civil Service, or P/T Examinations and thereby secure the qualifications for appointment as government officials or government-recognized practitioners," Chang says.

But the system is not perfect. Chang points out two aspects that need to be improved. The first concerns the methods and contents of examinations. "The exams stick to old rules and do not change much," he says. As a result, "the examinations focus solely on the candidates' knowledge, which is learned mostly by memorization. As for their character, aptitude, and work ability, these are very difficult to know or judge." Chang's comments are particularly relevant to the two major exams, the Higher and Ordinary Examinations. In these, only written tests are given.

There are nine subjects in each field covered by the Higher Examinations. Three of these are required of all candidates: Dr. Sun Yat-sen's Teachings, the Constitution of the Republic of China, and Composition in Chinese (an essay and an official document). The other six subjects vary with the specific fields of study. For instance, candidates in Personnel Administration are tested in the Chinese and Examination and Personnel System, the Personnel Systems of Foreign Countries, Psychology, Administrative Law, Administration, and Criminal or Civil Law.

Ordinary examinations usually have seven subjects in each field, with three required of all candidates: The Three Principles of the People (by Dr. Sun), Composition in Chinese (an essay and an official document), and Chinese His­tory and Geography. The other four sub­jects vary with the specific field. For example, the subjects for the examination in Foreign Trade are: Foreign Trade and Foreign Exchange, Marketing, Money and Banking, and Business English.

After passing the written tests, successful candidates can be recruited into government agencies. "In other words, according to current examination methods, whether a man is talented or not is decided almost only by his learning and knowledge," Chang says. He adds that the actual overall requirements for a competent government employee include much more than these.

Chang's view is echoed by Grace Hsu. She is finance manager of Golden Communications (Taiwan) Co., a local entertainment videotape company that distributes authorized tapes produced by Warner Brothers and the Hong Kong-based Golden Harvest Corporation. "Under the current exam system, if one studies hard for a certain time, one can easily pass the exam, because the subjects and questions require examinees to prepare mostly by memory. They have nothing to do with work experience. Therefore college graduates have an advantage over people such as myself who have been out of school for quite a long time."

After graduating from the Department of Banking and Insurance at Ming Chuan College 14 years ago, Hsu took the Ordinary Examination twice in a bid to work in a government-run bank, but she did not score high enough to pass. Nevertheless, Hsu admits that the examination system is fair to everybody. But she does suggest that some adjustments could be made in the examination subjects.

"For example, Chinese history and geography are required subjects for every Ordinary Exam applicant," she says. "But if a person passes the tests and enters a bank, the knowledge has nothing to do with his daily work. So these subjects could be replaced by others more relevant to actual job needs."

Beyond the criticisms of examination method and content, Chang is concerned with another defect in the system. Special Examinations now seem to be the major means of recruiting talent for government, rather than the Higher and Ordinary Examinations, as the system was originally designed.

"Higher and Ordinary Examinations are held once a year, but Special Examinations, including A, B, C, and D, are held many times. And the number of personnel recruited through Special Examinations is now much higher than that through Ordinary and Higher Examinations," Chang says. He suggests that the government return Higher and Ordinary Examinations to their previous legal status and, if necessary, hold each one twice a year. This would push Special Examinations into playing a secondary and supplementary role.

In spite of these so-called defects in the current examinations, Chang is quick to affirm the value of the overall system. "If we ask if there is any possible way to replace the examination system, I believe the answer is no," he says. "There is no better method we can adopt. And that is the reason why the United States and the United Kingdom emulated this system."

Indeed, Western nations did pattern their examination systems after the Chinese model. The famous British economist Adam Smith recommended the value of the Chinese examination system to his government in 1776, and England began to use a written examination to select trade officers for the East India Company in 1832. Eventually, a British civil service examination law was passed in 1855, and went into effect in 1870.

The U.S. adopted its own form of the civil service exam in the late 19th Century in part to overcome the abusive spoils system of rewarding loyal supporters of winning candidates and party with appointive offices. In 1881, the Congress passed the civil servant law, and examinations were formally introduced in 1883.

Like China, Western nations have found the core value of such a system in selecting people to work in government: "Examination is not the only way, nor is it perfect, but it is the most objective and democratic means," Chang says. Innumerable government employees would agree. "If there were no examination system, I would not be in my current post," says Chen Yung-jen, director of the Department of Management of Hazardous Wastes of the Environmental Protection Administration (EPA), which is under the Executive Yuan. In 1978, the year he graduated from the Department of Public Health at National Taiwan University, Chen took the Higher Examination. He failed, but at the same time he passed another examination conducted by the Ministry of Education. This allowed him to study abroad with government subsidies.

Chen went to Columbia University to study environmental management. After receiving a master's degree in 1982, he returned to Taiwan and began work in the Environmental Protection Bureau, which was at that time still under the Department of Health, Executive Yuan. The following year, Chen passed the National Higher Examination, and was soon promoted to section chief.

In 1986, the government again spon­sored his study in the U.S., where he earned a Ph.D. In spite of his advanced degree, Chen found upon his return that he could not be promoted any further under the Regulations Governing the Appointment of Civil Servants, which say that promotion can be based only on the yearly performance evaluation or through examinations. But in August 1987, when his Bureau was upgraded to the Environmental Protection Administration, he was able to take a different tack. The next year he took and passed Special Examination A. Beginning in January 1989, he thus became a Grade to director, at 33 the youngest director in any central government agency.

Special Examination A ranks above the Higher Examination. It is designed for applicants who hold master's and doctorate degrees, for those who have been professors or associate professors for more than two years, and for those who have passed the Higher Examination four to six years previously. The examination includes a written and oral test, and an evaluation of the applicants' publications or inventions. After passing the exam, successful candidates can be appointed as senior-level officials.

"Special Examination A is important to the government in recruiting special talent for appointment as senior civil servants," Chang says. "Successful candidates are initially appointed as senior level [Grade 10] chian-jen officials." These officials are in the Authorized Appointment bracket, meaning they are at least the head of a department in a central government agency, as is Chen Yung-jen.

Even though Special Examination A gives the government broader recruitment capabilities, many people criticize the exam. They say that it opens the door for so-called "airborne troops," meaning people who are suddenly promoted 10 high posts that other civil servants might not be able to climb to in 20 years-or even throughout their lives through ordinary promotions.

Chen has a response to this point of view: "In a long-existing government institution, superiors should first consider promoting insiders to a high-level vacancy. But in a newly established institution such as mine, or when several agencies are to be upgraded to ministerial level, it is rather difficult to fill all the vacancies at high posts by promoting people inside. They might be unqualified either because their position grades are not high enough or because their specialties do not suit actual demands. In these circumstances, Special Examination A can serve as the proper means of finding qualified people with the required specialties. "

Due in part to the criticism and problems voiced about different examinations, the Examination Yuan two years ago reviewed and revised the Examination Law for Civil Servants. Several new measures are to be implemented in the near future:

First, Higher Examinations will be held at different levels according to the different educational backgrounds of the candidates. In the past, candidates holding Ph.D. degrees had to compete with college graduates in the Higher Examinations. If they passed, their initial appointments were at the same level (Grade 6). From now on, the Higher Examination will be conducted at two levels: Level I for candidates holding Ph.D., M.A. or M.S. degrees; and Level II primarily for graduates holding B.A. or B.S. degrees, and secondarily for those who have passed Higher Qualifying Examinations or those who have passed the Ordinary Examinations at least three years previously. The initial appointments for successful candidates in the two levels will also be different—Grade 7 for Level I, and Grade 6 for Level II.

A second measure calls for examina­tions at the same level to be conducted in two stages. In the past, there was only one written test for all the examinations, and if candidates failed, they had to take another test including all the subjects once again. Soon this will change. A test of the required subjects will be given first, and then only those who pass the first stage can take the second test of specific subjects. In this way, candidates who pass the first but fail the second will only have to take the second test again.

A third change involves the qualifications candidates must have to apply to take Special Examination A. These have been broadened to include college graduates who have at least a three-year outstanding performance record as chair­men or general managers in the government, or have an excellent record of service as assistant managers for at least six years in well-known private enterprises in Taiwan or abroad. The method of examination will also be changed, with the written test given first; only candidates successful in this will have their publications or inventions screened by the examination authorities.

"These revisions provide a genuine equal footing for the candidates in competition," Chang says. "For people with different educational backgrounds, there should be different initial appointments." He also points out that the two-stage examination method can save both the examination authorities and the candidates a considerable amount of time and trouble. Moreover, the recognition of candidates' work experience in private enterprise will undoubtedly encourage more talented people to join the gov­ernment.

But can any sort of examination system guarantee that the successful candidates will definitely be qualified for their assignments? This is not an idle question. Many officials have in fact been complaining that newly-recruited personnel are incompetent because they lack actual work experience. Therefore, "pre-job training should never be neglected," Chang says.

Although the Ministry of Examina­tion has for years conducted a two-week pre-job training program for successful candidates, the results have generally not measured up to expectations. In response to many suggestions for improvement, the Examination Yuan in coordination with the Executive Yuan in 1986 began a new training program for those candidates who passed the Higher and Ordinary Examinations.

According to the new regulations, the training period will now include a two-week pre-job basic training, then a one-year professional internship, which will give practical on-the-job training. After candidates receive their initial appointments and begin work, they must wait one year before being formally employed. The training program is therefore an integral part of the examination process. Performance during this year is carefully monitored, because those who pass will be hired, while insufficient success in the practical work of the internship means failure of the examination.

Despite these improvements in the system, there is obviously no way exams or pre-job training can guarantee that any individual will remain competent all his life. Two years ago, Dr. Yu Tzong-hsian, vice president of the Chung-Hua Institution for Economic Research, addressed this problem in an article focusing on the relations between the current civil service examination system and the quality of civil servants.

"We have noticed that whenever a reform is to be launched, the biggest obstacle comes from low- and middle-ranking civil servants," he wrote. "These people always see today's world with the viewpoints of 20 or 30 years ago, and always measure current social phenomena with the value standards of 20 or 30 years ago. As a result, instead of solving the problems, the countermeasures they propose always complicate the problems." In his conclusion, Dr. Yu urged that the current examination system be changed in order for it to select the sort of civil servants really needed by a modern government.

To tackle this problem, Chang suggests that civil servants improve themselves all the time by expanding their knowledge and acquiring new ideas, and that the government help them by supplying on-the-job training. In fact, ac­cording to Examination Yuan statistics, in 1987 a total of 691,535 civil servants received pre-job or on-the-job training, or attended one-week seminars. In addition, a total of 8,809 pursued one-year programs of advanced study in either local or foreign colleges, universities, and research institutes, with funds provided by government agencies and by government workers themselves.

Director Chang's Center for Public and Business Administration Education is also responsible for the training of civil servants. He says that evaluations of the training programs have shown conclusively that government employees have benefited, especially in the areas of management and administration. Another positive result of the program comes from the mixed group of employees who attend group training sessions. Since they come from different agencies from all over the island, they have the oppor­tunity to understand other parts of gov­ernment better, which is a long-term contribution to national development.

While the format of such training has proved successful, Chang says that the teaching methods need further refinement. "We plan to enliven the lectures and introduce teaching methods such as role-playing, speeches and de­bates, and plan-drafting. In this respect, we need to learn more from other ad­vanced countries. "

The current examination system is in many respects a sound system, and one that is heavily utilized. From 1950 to 1987, a total of 4,500,440 people registered to take 991 examinations; only 527,321 passed. Even though the salaries of civil servants have always been low in comparison with those offered in the private sector, Hsu Yu-shou, vice minister of the Ministry of Personnel, says he is confident that people will always seek to work in the government.

"In ancient China, the social ranks were in the [descending] order of scholar-officials, farmers, workers, and merchants," he says. "Today, the traditional Chinese concept that being a scholar-official is an honor is still prevalent. To many people, the honor of getting a high position is more important than more pay or better material life."

Hsu's evaluation is supported by survey results released in 1985 by the Research, Development, and Evaluation Commission (RDEC) of the Executive Yuan concerning the morale of govern­ment employees. According to the survey, 78.33 percent of those surveyed took pride in being civil servants; 68.56 percent felt that the civil service is a highly respectable occupation; and 66.01 percent indicated that, given a change to pursue a different career path, they would still choose to be civil servants.

But in the past few years a change in attitude toward government service has been quite noticeable. In its May 1989 issue, Tien Hsia (Commonwealth) magazine, a well-known local monthly, ran a special focus article on current government employees. The article reported that government employees have become a "weak group" in contemporary society as a result of social change and pluralism.

Low pay and slow promotion—coupled with an increasing number of street demonstrations and protests against government administration as well as rising public criticism from the assemblymen in local and central repre­sentative bodies—have made govern­ment employees feel increasingly frustrated with their positions.

Even more worrisome is the declining economic power of government employees as a result of the island's rapidly transforming economic conditions. Salaries have not kept pace with the rising costs of society, and as a result many government employees, senior and junior alike, have begun leaving for jobs in the private sector.

The Tien Hsia report indicates, for example, that ever since the Taiwan stock market began its rapid rise two years ago, more than 20 middle-ranking officials have left the Security & Exchange Commission of the Ministry of Finance for the private sector. This is 20 percent of the Commission's total personnel.

Another striking example: four days after the new deputy director of the Economic Research Department in the Council for Economic Planning and Development assumed his post, he left to join a local security investment company as its vice general manager.

According to a survey released in 1984 by the RDEC, 91.8 percent of the government employees who resign are under 39 years old, and two-thirds of them are college graduates. The trend is continuing, and is especially noticeable among middle-ranking officials.

"As society becomes more pluralistic, the traditional concepts are indeed affected. But it is not a fatal blow so far," says Hsu Yu-shou. "It is true, and also a pity, that some high-ranking officials leave the government and turn to the private sector. But we can also put it this way: private companies lure them away mostly because they have proved their ability in government posts."

Grace Hsu of Golden Communications points out that security is a major reason many people will still choose to be civil servants: "I think it's good to be a government employee because one can have a more stable life. If I were given another chance to pass the exam, I would still choose to be a civil servant, in spite of the fact that I'd obviously get much less pay."

The government does have a sound policy of fringe benefits, including the Government Employees Insurance Programs (see FCR, July 1987), retirement pension, compensation for death, as well as various subsidies for employee education, education of their children, and emergency financial needs. These help provide a feeling of stability, and are important considerations for many people in the job market.

But low pay has always been a major complaint from many civil servants, and it remains the primary reason many people decide not to enter government service. In Taiwan, as in many other countries, no matter how superficial this is, a person's salary more or less serves as an direct indication of his social status. Thus, Director Chang Jun-shu suggests that salary increases are the best way for the government to take care of its employees.

"At present, the salaries of low-ranking officials are a little better than their equals in the private sectors, but the higher the rank of official, the less they are paid in comparison with their equals in private enterprises," he says.

The government has in recent years been readjusting the pay structure by widening the pay gap between high-ranking and low-ranking officials. Chang regards this as a proper measure. "In England, the pay ratio between high-ranking and low-level civil servants is about 12 to 1. But in Taiwan, it was about 2 to 1 eight years ago, and now it is 5 to 1. I think the ideal ratio would be 6 to 1," he says.

"We have been making every effort to take good care of all the civil servants in this country," says Vice Minister Hsu of the Ministry of Personnel. In fact, in July of this year, civil servants received a 12 percent pay raise, and a new expansion of insurance covering the parents of government employees was also implemented. "We are trying our best to recruit and keep the best talent in the government," Hsu says.

The status of public servants in society is also a major concern of the new Cabinet. On July 7, five weeks after he assumed his post as head of the Cabinet, Premier Lee Huan promised during his first news conference that concrete measures would be drafted by the government agencies concerned in order to raise the pay of government employees, improve their benefits, assist them in advanced academic study, and above all, help maintain their dignity as civil servants.

Today, the Chinese examination system faces challenges far different from those during the times of Yao and Shun and later imperial dynasties. "We fully realize that it is necessary to review and revise the system to keep up with the changing times," says Vice President Lin Chin-sheng of the Examination Yuan. The question remains whether changes in the system can keep up with the rapid pace of social and political transformations that characterize contemporary Taiwan.