Annexation of Tibet
As early as January, 1950, shortly after the establishment of the puppet Peiping regime, the Chinese Communists invited a few so-called Tibetan representatives, who have since become permanent residents in Peiping, to a meeting of the "Commission on Racial Affairs" to discuss the problem of Tibet. These representatives clamored for the "liberation" of Tibet by armed force. On October 19, 1950, the Communist forces pushed into the western part of the Province of Sikang and slashed into the Tibetan defenses like a knife into butler. Because the Indians were alarmed by the Communist victory at the Tibetan fortress of Chamdo and the advance of Communist armed forces towards Lhasa, the Communists decided that it would be better to seize Tibet through a political plot.
A delegation of the Tibetan Government, headed by the captured governor of Chamdo, was sent by the Dalai Lama in April, 1951 to Peiping. In the meantime, the Communists brought the long forgotten Panchan Lama to Peiping in a train decorated with yellow and crimson silk. By this gesture, the Communists gave a broad hint that if the Tibetan delegation representing the Dalai Lama failed to agree to the dictated terms, a puppet regime under the Panchan Lama would be set up. Finally on May 23, 1951, the Tibetan representatives, under military and political pressure, were forced to sign the "Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet." By the terms of the Agreement, the Government of Tibet nominally lost only its control of foreign affairs and of the armed forces, but on October 30, 1951, when the Tibetan delegation returned to Lhasa, it was discovered that the Communists had attached 60 more articles to the Agreement. The harsh terms created such dissatisfaction in Tibet that the Communist representative in Lhasa, Chang Ching-wu, had to ask for urgent military support. With tremendous difficulty Communist troops were dispatched to Tibet to strengthen the Communist hold on that country.
Religion and Government
Tibet, an outlying territory of China, is bordered by Sinkiang and Chinghai in the North, Sikang in the East, Bhutan, Sikkim and Nepal in the South, and India in the South and West. The history of Tibet is replete with myths and legends. For centuries, this country was dominated by a religious faith and a priestly organization of the Church of Lama, a modified form of Buddhism. The Tibetans believe that their ancesters were descended from Chenresi, the compassionate spirit, from whom all spiritual and human rulers came.
It was towards the middle of the Tang Dynasty (about the 7th century A. D.) that the relations between China and Tibet became significant. With the Mongol conquest of China in the 13th century, Tibet was incorporated into the Chinese Empire. In 1912 the Tibetans declared their independence of China. Following the establishment of the National Government of the Republic of China in 1927, the relations between the National Government and Tibet had been close and friendly.
In Tibet, religion exerts a tremendous influence on politics, law, custom and life in general. The head of the State is the Dalai Lama. This personage is believed by the Tibetans to be the incarnation of the Saint Padma Pani, and on the death of each Dalai Lama, the re-incarnation of his spirit is sought for among the infants born at the time of his death. Directly under the Dalai Lama, the spiritual head of Tibet, there are three great monasteries in or near Lhasa, namely, the Djerjung Monastery with 4 abbots and 7,700 lamas, the Sera Monastery with 3 abbots and 5,500 lamas and the Gandin Monastery with 2 abbots and 3.300 lamas.
If, for the moment, we leave the Vatican and the Kremlin out of our discussion, Tibet is the only theocracy in the world where religion and politics are inseparable. The Dalai Lama is the supreme ruler both in religious and political affairs. Under him comes the Kasha or Council of State, consisting of 4 Shape's or ministers whose job is to attend to political and administrative business and to hear appeals from the Jongpen's or district officials. In addition to the Ka-sha, a National Assembly, called the Tsong-du-Chembo, meets occasionally to discuss matters of importance in Government administration.
Tibet under Communist Rule
The Tibetan army was composed of about 8,000 officers and men grouped into units equivalent to battalions in size. According to statistics published in 1949, it had 40 machine-guns, 20 trench mortars, 30,000 rifles, plus a few field guns. Much of the ammunition came from India. Following the signing of the "Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet," about 45,000 Chinese Communist troops marched into Tibet and seized every strategic position on the lofty Tibetan plateau.
Having established military control over Tibet, the Communists tried to run the local administration by pulling the strings from behind the original political set-up. In other words, the Communists are utilizing the Dalai Lama's Government machinery to impose their will on Tibet. Upon the Communists' arrival in Western Tibet, it was reported that one of the two Jongpen's fled from his office at Gartok, but the Communists brought him back and re-instated him in office.
On February 10, 1952, when the Communists celebrated the "establishment of the Tibet Army Command." under Commanding General Chang Ching-wu, two Tibetan Sha-pe's were appointed as two of the three Deputy Commanding Generals. It is obvious that the Communists enjoy complete control over the reorganized Tibetan army.
Since the Communist forces moved into Tibet, the local people have been placed under their complete control. All local transportation facilities were commandeered by the Communist forces. The Communist New China News Agency reported on November 21, 1951 that over the snow-capped mountains 5,000 to 6,000 feet above sea level, thousands of Tibetan laborers and pack animals were moving supplies for the Red troops. Later on, over 10,000 Tibetan laborers were forced to construct a road from Chamdo to Lhasa over mountains rising over 5,000 feet above sea level. The Communists believe that this road would serve the vital purpose of linking up their forces in Tibet with those stationed in the inner part of China. Besides the construction of this road, the Communists have forced the Tibetan people to construct other strategic highways in Tibet to lead to Chinghai, India, and Sinkiang so as to make of Tibet a center of the Communist army bases, from which operations can be directed against India and other countries in Southeast Asia.
The Tibetans never before permitted any aircraft which they call "Sky Dragons," to fly over their sacred land. Against the Tibetan tradition, Communist aircraft have forced their way into Tibet. They have started to construct air bases in Lhasa, Shigatze, Gartok and several auxiliary bases in Langma and other places. In the construction of roads and air bases, thousands of Tibetan laborers have died of under-nourishment and overwork.
Tibet is exceedingly rich in mineral resources. The Chinese Communists, accompanied by numerous so-called Soviet advisers, have recently been engaged in prospecting and exploiting them.
According to a New China News Agency report dated August 4, 1952, five collective farms of about 1,000 to 4,000 mou's each are in operation in or near Bohim, Dingching, Shigatze, and Lhasa. According to other statistical reports, the Communists have opened 13 smaller collective farms in various places in Tibet, the total area of which amounts to 14,000 mou's. On the basis of the foregoing, it is safe to conclude that a large number of monastorial "landlords" must have been liquidated and vast farm lands confiscated.
Communist domination has seriously affected Tibet's trade. With the purpose of monopolizing the trade, the Communists have organized the "Himalaya Trade Company" in Lhasa, the capital of which was said to be 2,000,000 rupees. Branch offices of the Company have been established in Shigatze, Gyantse, and Gartok. The main item of export from Tibet had been wool; but since it came under the control of the Communists, the United States of America has stopped the importation of wool from Tibet in conformity with its policy of not doing business with Communists countries. It is the opinion of commercial experts that the future of Tibetan trade will depend on the development of business with India.
The Communists have established a "People's Bank" in Lhasa with branch offices in various other cities. This is the first time that banking service was made available to Tibetans. However, the main function of the bank is to issue paper money with which the Communists purchase jewelry, gold and silver from the local inhabitants.
In 1951, the Tibetan population was estimated to be about 1,000,000. According to a report made on December 3, 1952 by a diplomatic correspondent of The Manchester Guardian, Mao Tse-tung had announced through the Peiping radio that the population of Tibet should be increased to 10,000,000. Ironical as it may seem, an UP report from Bombay said, "Thousands of Tibetans have become famine-stricken since the Chinese Communist troops seized food supplies for 10,000 red troops stationed in Lhasa." Other reports said that an armed clash occurred between Red troops and the local people because the farmer had deprived the latter of their far-from-plentiful food supplies. The presence of 40,000 to 50,000 Red troops and civilians in Tibet constitutes about a 5% increase of the original population. If a population of 5% is capable of causing food shortage and riots, we may conclude that the aim of increasing the population to 10 times the present number is impossible of achievement, unless one's motive is to cause trouble.
External Relations
Great Britain in 1904 concluded a treaty with Tibet to open a trade route from Kalimpong in India to Lhasa. In 1914 the British and Indians initiated the provisions of the Simla Convention and discussed them with representatives of the Chinese Government. In spite of the fact that the then Chinese Government refused to sign the convention, the British and Indians considered it as having come into force. In that convention the British and Indians recognized the principle of Chinese suzerainty over Tibet, but China, in their opinion, was to observe strictly her limited position as suzerain. The internal sovereignty of Tibet should be vested in the vassal state. This has been for many years the British view.
In the past, the attitude of the Government of the Republic of China towards Tibet had been irreproachable. The Government of the Republic of China fully respected the geographical, cultural and political difference of Tibet and did its best to assist the Tibetans in raising their standard of living. The British and the Indians were jealous of the interest which the Government of the Republic of China took in Tibetan welfare and considered it as a threat to the security of India.
For more than 16 years, an Indian Mission had been established in Lhasa. In an abrupt about-face, the Indian Ministry of External Relations announced in September, 1952 that the Indian Mission would be wound up and replaced by a Consulate-General accredited to the Communist puppet regime in Peiping. Obviously, the withdrawal of the Indian Mission from Lhasa was caused by the exertion of pressure by the Communist puppet regime. This move on the part of India indicates that the Indian Government has recognized Communist control over Tibet and that it is resigned to forfeiting all its special privileges there.
Russian Interests
After having established a hold on Buddhist Mongolia, Tsarist Russia thought of further expanding her influence in Tibet. Because of the traditional British policy of balance of power, the notorious Russian agent, Dorjeff, was kept at a certain distance from Lhasa. According to the New York Times of March 29, 1952, the Chinese Reds and a large number of Russian engineers had been laying communication lines, constructing roads, and establishing military posts in Western Tibet. "Though the Chinese Communists have nominally established their position in Tibet," said another report, "The Soviet Russians are, de facto, the masters." No sooner had the Chinese Communists entered Tibet than a "Commission for Tibetan Affairs" under the chairmanship of Chekhof was set up in Peiping. This controlling organization is assigned the job of studying the military, political, economic, and cultural work of Tibet. At Chamdo, a branch office of the Commission, also headed by a Russian assigned Tolidayef, was established in October, 1950.
According to a report from New Delhi dated August 27, 1951, Communist troops were reported to be in control of all passes from Tibet to India and Nepal across the Himalayas. Chinese Communist troops were seen moving towards the border town of Kalimpong with civilian travelers. Since the Chinese Reds entered Western Tibet from Sinkiang, the Indians have been embarrassed by the Uttar Pradash-Western Tibet frontier problem.
Jumping-off Board
Formerly Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan were part of the territory of Tibet. In 1890, Great Britain secured recognition of her protectorate over Sikkim by concluding a treaty with China. In 1901, she supported the Government of Nepal in its secession from Tibet. In 1901, she further secured her protectorate over Bhutan. It is reported that Nepal has been involved in serious internal troubles created by the Communists. An AP report from New Delhi said that on July 16, 1953, the Nepalese Government was rushing reinforcements to quell the continual Communist disorders in the isolated Himalayan region. Furthermore, during the early part of July, an Indian newspaper reported that Communists had attacked the important trading town of Bilauri and that they were moving toward Dhangarni near the Indian border. It was also reliable learned that during his visit to India in the middle of May, 1953, US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles had occasion to talk to the Indial Premier, Nehru, and representatives of Burma and Nepal on the increased Communist threat to the countries adjacent to the lofty plateau of Tibet.
The Chinese Reds are building a strategic road from Lhasa to the frontier of India and Sikkim. Communist pressure on these two countries may be expected to increase. It is to be remembered that the British army under Colonel Francis Younghusband in 1904 pushed into Tibet from India through the same mountain pass now held by the Communists. There is no reason why the Communist could not enter India and the adjacent countries of Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan by the same road. Although Mr. Nehru appears eager to act as a tool of Mao Tse-tung, it is obvious to political observers that no amount of tail-wagging on the part of the Indian leader would remove the Communist threat to India.