The Chinese are the largest ethnological group in the world. They constitute nearly a quarter of the 3,300 million population of the earth. Besides the 700 million people on the Chinese mainland and the 13 million on Taiwan, there are 18.5 million Chinese living in every part of the globe. As a Chinese proverb puts it, "Where there is sea water, there are people of China."
Until the beginning of this century, the overseas Chinese called themselves Tang-jen or "Tang people" and their homeland Tang-shan or "Tang mountain". They used the word "Tang" because Chinese culture enjoyed one of its greatest periods during the Tang dynasty (618-907 A. D.). Even today, Chinatowns of some countries are called Tang-jen-chieh or "Tang people street". Since the birth of the Republic of China in 1912, the overseas Chinese have been known as Hua-ch'iao or "Chinese sojourners".
Early Chinese emigrants were mostly seafarers, merchants, and laborers. Some went abroad to seek trade opportunities. Others left the mainland because of famine or political unrest arising from dynastic changes. After the Opium War of 1840, many laborers were recruited or shanghaied for railroad and canal construction and as plantation workers. They rarely considered themselves permanent settlers. When they died abroad, survivors endeavored to send the remains to China for burial. Yet few of the emigrants returned in life. They thought constantly of going home. But if they had prospered, they expected to amass even more wealth. And if they were poor, they could not afford the passage. Gradually they accepted residence abroad and even naturalization in their new lands. However, the first generation continued to live in the Chinese way, to speak the dialects of their ancestors, and to cherish the hope of visiting their homeland once more and then of return to their birthplaces as a final resting place.
Until recently, some overseas Chinese have humorously ridiculed themselves as having three precious tao (knives) to earn a living: the tsai-tao (kitchen knife), ti-tao (razor), and chien-tao (scissors). But the Hua-ch'iao of today do not live by the tao alone. Many have become prominent personages in their host countries. Sir Solomon Hochoy, of Cantonese ancestry, is governor general of Trinidad-Tobago. Hiram L. Fong, also Cantonese, is the senior U.S. Senator from Hawaii. In Singapore, the Chinese rule. In Malaysia they constitute an influential element in both cabinet and parliament. Chinese is an official language in these two countries, as it is in the United Nations along with English, French, Spanish, and Russian.
Of the 18.5 million Chinese overseas, nearly 18 million live in Asia. The rest are in North America, 370,000; Central America, 89,700; South America, 61,500; Oceania, 57,600; Europe, 53,500; Africa, 49,000; and the Middle East, 16,000. A detailed breakdown is given in an accompanying table.
Korea Was First
According to history, the first Chinese emigration took place in 1122 B. C. when the Shang, China's second dynasty of record, was overthrown by King Wu of the Chou dynasty. In that year, a young noble of the Shang court, Chi-tzu (Kija in Korean), is 'said to have refused to serve the new dynasty and to have emigrated to Korea with 5,000 followers. Another exodus to Korea came in 108 B.C. when Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty established Lolang (Nangnang in Korean) and three other colonies in that peninsula.
Before the annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910, the Chinese there totaled more than 100,000. Because of Japanese persecution and travel restrictions, the number had dropped to 23,089 by 1920. The present Chinese population of South Korea is estimated at 30,000, more than 90 per cent of them from the Shantung peninsula of North China. About a third of the Chinese in Korea are restaurant owners and 2 per cent are herb practitioners.
Study in Japan
Emigration to Japan began in 219 B. C. when Hsu Fu, an official of Shih Huang-ti (the First Emperor), led 3,000 boys and as many girls to that country to seek the elixir of life for their ruler. They reached Japan but did not return to China. Emigration continued thereafter. Census records of 540 A. D. showed 7,053 Chinese families in Japan. Calculated on the basis of five persons per family, the number of Chinese residents apparently was about 35,000. The New Book of Family Names compiled by the Japanese court from 810 to 823 A. D. listed 1,059 names. Of these, 324 were Chinese. The people of Tang worked in Japan as clerks, cashiers, accountants, weavers, silkworm raisers, carpenters, and masons.
During the last years of the Ching (Manchu) dynasty, thousands of Chinese went to Japan to study. They played important roles in the 1911 Revolution inspired by Dr. Sun Yat-sen. In September of 1905, soon after the conclusion of the Treaty of Portsmouth ending the Russo-Japanese War, they established a revolutionary organization known as the Tung Meng Hui (Society of the Common Cause) with Dr. Sun as president. After the establishment of the Republic, the Tung Meng Hui was reorganized as the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party).
In 1930, the peak year in pre-war days, there were 31,000 Chinese in Japan. The number decreased after the Manchurian Incident in the following year. There has been little increase since World War II because of the strict entry regulations. Of the present population of 50,000, about half are from Taiwan. The principal occupations are restaurant operation and foreign trade.
Hongkong formerly was Chinese territory. The island was ceded to England by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. When British troops landed on the island in 1841, there were only 2,000 inhabitants. The population increased to 840,000 in 1931, dropped to 600,000 in 1945, and had soared to more than 3.8 million in 1965. This figure includes Hongkong island, Kowloon, and the New Territories leased from China. In the last 30 years, that British colony twice has become an asylum for the Chinese. Many refugees went there before 1941, when the Sino-Japanese War became a part of World War II, and again before and just after the 1949 fall of the mainland to the Communists. Of the present population of 4 million, 98 per cent is Chinese.
Southeast Asia has most of the Hua-ch'iao communities. The earliest Chinese emigration to this area can be traced to the Han dynasty. However, the real beginning of Chinese settlement in Southeast Asia can be attributed to Cheng Ho (1371-1435), China's greatest navigator. A eunuch serving Emperor Cheng Tsu of the Ming dynasty, Cheng Ho carried out seven expeditions to the South Seas as a special envoy. He also traveled to the Red Sea and along the east coast of Africa.
Many in Thailand
Because most countries in Southeast Asia embrace the principle of jus soli to determine citizenship, the number of overseas Chinese in the area is a controversial question. Thailand may be taken as an example. Statistics of the Thai government in 1961 showed 409,508 Chinese, constituting 1.67 per cent of the population. However, the figure did not include Thai-born Chinese and those with dual nationality. The Chinese Embassy in Bangkok reported in 1962 that there were 3,790,000 Chinese. The present number is estimated at 4 million to make Thailand's Hua-ch'iao community the biggest in the world. About 70 per cent is engaged in commerce, 16 per cent in industry, 8 per cent in agriculture and fisheries, and 6 per cent in mining.
Majority in Singapore
Singapore, the youngest country in Asia, has 1,414,000 Chinese or 75 per cent of the population. Many professors of Nanyang University are from Taiwan. Other countries in Southeast Asia with large Chinese populations are Malaysia, 36 per cent; Sarawak, 32 per cent; and Sabah, 25 per cent. There are 3 million Chinese in Indonesia and 1.25 million in South Vietnam. But in both these countries the Chinese make up less than 10 per cent of the population. During the late 1950s when the Sukarno government was persecuting the Hua-ch'iao in Indonesia, thousands came to Taiwan for resettlement.
Most Chinese in the Middle East are Moslems from Sinkiang in northwest China. They escaped from the mainland after the Communist takeover and have been treated well by their host countries because the Republic of China and the Moslem countries are strongly anti-Communist. Of the 13,000 Chinese in Saudi Arabia, more than 10,000 have become citizens.
The earliest Chinese emigration to the United States was in 1820. In the first 20 years, the number was less than 50. With the discovery of gold in California and the start of transcontinental railroad construction, the Chinese increased to 791 in 1849 and 12,000 in 1851. By 1980 the count was 106,000, mostly from Kwangtung in South China.
As a result of Oriental exclusion laws in the early years of this century, the U.S. Hua-ch'iao population had dropped to 77,500 by 1940. Since World War II, it has increased more than three times. This is mainly attributable to the following reasons:
1. During the Sino-Japanese War, most Chinese students were compelled to stay in the United States. The important cities on the Chinese mainland were occupied by the Japanese.
2. Since the fall of the mainland to the Communists, thousands of refugees have emigrated to the United States from Hongkong.
3. In recent years, student emigrants from Taiwan have averaged 1,000 annually.
The present Hua-ch'iao population of the United States is estimated at 300,000. In addition to restaurant and laundry operators and the like, there are 2,000 Chinese teaching in colleges and universities. The best known are Lee Tsung-dao and Yang Chen-ning, co-winners of the 1957 Nobel Prize for physics. Students total 10,000.
Most of the early Chinese emigrants in Canada came from California in the mid-19th century. They worked as gold miners and railroad laborers. There were 2,500 in 1863. Of the present population of 70,000, three quarters are laborers.
Settlers for Cuba
Latin America ranks third in New World Hua-ch'iao population. The first emigrants reached Cuba and nearby countries some two decades before the influx into the United States. It is estimated that 126,000 Chinese laborers went to Cuba between 1847 and 1874. In addition to working as railroad, canal, and plantation laborers, some served as mercenaries in the Spanish army. Most came from the southern provinces of Kwangtung and Fukien.
Before Fidel Castro seized power in 1959, there were 31,000 Chinese in Cuba. Since then, some 6,000 have left for the United States and elsewhere. The remaining 25,000 still constitute the largest Hua-ch'iao community in Latin America. Most of them are engaged in evading and defying the over-staffed Havana "embassy" of Peiping.
Jamaica has 21,000 Chinese. Interestingly, they are all Hakkas from Kwangtung. This is the richest Hua-ch'iao community in Latin America.
There are 53,000 Chinese in Western Europe. More than 80 per cent (45,000) is in United Kingdom. Of these, 35,000 are from Hongkong. The principal occupation is restaurant operation. The largest restaurant has 150 employees.
Switzerland is the only country in which the largest number of Chinese is not in the restaurant business. Most of the 150 Chinese in Switzerland are working for such U.N. agencies as the International Labor Organization, World Health Organization, International Telecommunications Union, and World Meteorological Association.
Australian Chinese
Some historians maintain the Chinese landed in Australia before the discovery of that continent by Ferdinand Magellan. Relics unearthed in recent years suggest that Chinese ships visited Darwin at the beginning of the 15th century. Between 1823 and 1825, thousands of Chinese coolies were recruited from Amoy and Hongkong for mining and railroad construction. The Chinese population of Australia exceeded 100,000 in the late 1870s.
After establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, the number of Chinese settlers began to drop as a result of the "White Australia" policy. The restrictions have been relaxed in recent years and more than 800 refugees from the Chinese mainland have been granted permanent residence. The present Chinese population is 25,000. Principal occupations are commerce and farming.
Most of the Chinese in Africa live in such eastern islands as Mauritius, Madagascar, and Reunion. Their ancestors moved there about a century ago to raise sugar cane. After expiration of labor contracts, they turned to business and trade. Those in South Africa are descendants of diamond and gold mine workers.
In addition to the overseas residents, more than 1,000 Chinese technicians from the Republic of China are working in 23 foreign countries. Seventeen farm teams with personnel of 505 are helping 17 African countries. They are growing rice and vegetables in Cameroun, Chad, Congo (Kinshasa), Dahomey, Gabon, Gambia, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Libya, Malagasy Republic, Malawi, Niger, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo, and Upper Volta. Engineering and medical personnnel in Libya and veterinary surgeons in Ethiopia total 236.
Chinese Schooling
Other technical assistance teams are:
Middle East—five-man farm team in Saudi Arabia.
Southeast Asia—(1) 80-man farm mission, 16-man electrical power mission, 14-man medical mission, and 76 harbor engineers in South Vietnam; (2) 19-man farm mission in the Philippines.
Latin America—Six-man farm mission in the Dominican Republic and 14-man mission in Brazil.
All the teams are doing well. Many countries have asked the Chinese to extend their contracts.
The Chinese believe that filial piety and observance of the Chinese way of life are great virtues. To preserve the old ways, the Hua-ch'iao have sent their sons and daughters to China for schooling or have set up schools of their own. Since 1951, more than 17,000 overseas Chinese students have come to Taiwan and 10,000 have been graduated from institutions of higher learning. Because Hua-ch'iao students have been increasing so rapidly, the government is considering the establishment of an overseas Chinese university in Taiwan. The number of Chinese schools abroad totals 5,000, including 30 colleges and universities.
In mid-August, some 250 overseas Chinese leaders from all parts of the world will converge on Taipei to discuss implementation of the Chinese Cultural Renaissance Movement suggested by President Chiang Kai-shek. The objectives of the movement are increased understanding and a new interpretation of Chinese culture.
The Hua-ch'iao are interested in free China's economic development. From 1951 to 1955, overseas Chinese investment in Taiwan averaged 4.4 projects and US$614,080 annually. Since the government promulgated the Statute for Investment by Overseas Chinese in 1955, the annual average has increased to 22 projects and US$5,619,331. Overseas Chinese plants total 248 with capitalization of US$62 million. Of 30 industrial categories, the largest are chemicals and food processing. These Hua-ch'iao investments have helped the nation provide employment opportunities and earn foreign exchange.
With the homecoming of overseas Chinese and their capital, and the continuous dispatch of technical assistance teams abroad, the Republic of China has gained strength and support for the struggle against Communist aggression.
Distribution of Overseas Chinese
Area & Country Population
1. Asia 17,950,700
South Korea 30,000
Japan 50,000
Ryukyus 1,200
Hongkong 3,700,000
Macao 280,000
Philippines 300,000
Indonesia 3,000,000
Thailand 4,000,000
South Vietnam 1,250,000
Cambodia 300,000
Laos 25,000
Burma 400,000
Singapore 1,414,000
Malaya 2,955,000
Sabah 130,000
Sarawak 28,000
Brunei 30,000
India 54,000
Pakistan 2,500
Ceylon 1,000
2. Middle East 16,000
Saudi Arabia 13,000
Turkey 3,000
3. North America 370,000
U.S.A. 300,000
Canada 70,000
4. Central America 89,700
Mexico 5,500
Cuba 25,000
Nicaragua 3,000
Honduras 1,000
Costa Rica 3,000
Panama 8,000
Guatemala 5,000
El Salvador 600
Haiti 300
Dominican Republic 1,300
Trinidad 15,000
Jamaica 21,000
Barbados 100
Curacao 500
Aruba 400
5. South America 61,555
Colombia 1,800
Venezuela 4,200
Ecuador 4,500
Peru 24,000
Brazil 11,800
Bolivia 100
Chile 300
Paraguay 15
Argentina 380
Uruguay 160
Guyana 4,100
Dutch Guiana 7,000
French Guiana 500
6. Europe (except Communist
countries) 53,500
U.K. 45,000
France 3,000
Netherlands 2,500
West Germany 1,300
Belgium 450
Italy 500
Spain 300
Portugal 200
Switzerland 150
Luxembourg 30
Austria 50
Greece 20
7. Oceania 57,600
Australia 25,000
New Zealand 11,500
Timor 5,800
New Guinea 3,100
Fiji Island 5,000
Tahiti 7,200
8. Africa 49,070
Mauritius 23,500
Madagascar 9,000
South Africa 8,000
Reunion 3,000
Mozambique 3,500
Angola 500
Libya 500
Tanganyika 350
U.A.R. 30
Liberia 30
Southern Rhodesia 300
Kenya 150
Ethiopia 50
Congo (Kinshasa) 20
Uganda 70
Zambia 70
Total 18,548,125