Taiwan Today

As islands go, Taiwan is neither so big nor so small. Its 13,885 square miles are dwarfed by Greenland's 840,000 or even by second-ranking New Guinea's 317,000, but shape up as big enough alongside Oahu's 604 or Little Diomede's 2.4. Its rank among the islands of the world is 37th, just ahead of Japan's third largest island of Kyushu, which has an area of 13,768 square miles.

Yet in history, Taiwan more than makes up for its lack of physical immensity. What other land of such area has known the flags of the Chinese Empire and the Republic of China, the Dutch, the Spanish, and the Japanese. Taiwan was even invaded by the French late in the 19th century, and was "discovered" for the West by the mariners of Portugal, who gave it another name — Ilha Formosa, or "beautiful island".

Even the Chinese didn't get to Taiwan first. No one knows exactly whence the first settlers came, but they have left their descendants in eight tribes of aborigines numbering about 150,000. These are people of Mongoloid features but with the eyes of Polynesia rather than Asia. Cheek bones are high, the skin color light brown, hair straight and black, stature short, and the frame stocky. Although there are resemblances to both the Chinese and Japanese, these first people of Taiwan resemble still more closely — in culture as well as physical appearance — the Dyaks of Borneo and the mountain tribes of northern Luzon. Most authorities classify Taiwan's aborigines as Micronesians and believe they reached the island between a thousand and two thousand years ago, some perhaps even earlier.

Before the coming of the Chinese, the original settlers led a primitive life. They lived on hunting and the bounty of the land. Agriculture was little developed. Chickens and dogs were the only domestic animals. Settlements were of 100 to 500 people, and life was far from peaceful. These people were ardent head-hunters. Tribes were incessantly at war. The Rev. George L. MacKay, who came to Taiwan as a missionary in 1872 and spent 23 years on the island, tells of many personal experience with the head-hunters in his book From Far Formosa. At that time the aborigines were collecting Chinese heads as well as those of shipwrecked mariners and other tribesmen. When the Japanese came in 1895, they attempted to pen up the aborigines and treated them with contempt and considerable cruelty. Japanese heads then became the most prized possession of the aborigines, who never were really pacified during the 50-year Japanese period.

Exploring Party

Chinese immigration began slowly, although the mainland is a mere 100 miles away. The first recorded Chinese contact with Taiwan was in 607 A.D., when Emperor Yang Ti sent an exploring party commanded by a cavalry officer named Shu Kwan. An imperial history written a generation later says the group "reached the island of Lu-chu, but no communication with the inhabitants was possible as their language could not be understood. The party captured one of the natives and returned home". Interestingly, this original name — later transliterated as Liuchiu, then as Liukju, and finally as Ryukyu — is that of the island chain stretching southwest from Japan and including Okinawa. The Ryukyus reach to well within the latitudes of Taiwan but lie some distance to the east. For several centuries the Chinese seem not to have made a distinction between Taiwan and the Ryukyus, although the latter contain no island anywhere close to the size of Taiwan. Okinawa has an area of only 463 square miles.

Probably there were two principal reasons for the delay of sizable Chinese immigration until late in the 15th century. At that time many of the aborigines lived in the lowlands; it was not until the coming of the Chinese in large numbers that these head-hunting tribes were driven into the foothills and eventually into the high mountains of the central range. The natives were tough customers. It is likely that early Chinese adventurers had found them so and decided to stay away from Taiwan. There were other and more hospitable lands nearby. The second reason involves the fact that historically Chinese emigration has been in the pursuit of trade. This was the case in the Philippines, Indochina, Malaysia, and — in fact-throughout Southeast Asia. Taiwan seems to have been the only land external to continental China that was settled primarily by Chinese farmers.

When the Dutch appeared on the scene in 1622, the Chinese population of Taiwan was estimated at around 25,000 — a figure that was to increase rapidly late in the 17th century and early in the 18th. The pioneer Chinese settlers can be divided into three groups. The Hoklos from Fukien across the Taiwan Straits speak the Amoy dialect and make up about three-quarters of the island's Chinese stock. They long have been known for their conservatism. The Hakkas are from farther north in China. They first settled in eastern Kwangtung province of the mainland and then emigrated not only to Taiwan but also to the extreme south of China and to Hainan island just east of northern Vietnam. Hakkas were to become enthusiastic supporters of Dr. Sun Yat-sen's Republican China and to provide excellent soldiers for the new government. There has been some intermarriage between Hakkas and aborigines. When the Japanese came in 1895, the Hakkas resisted fiercely. They have a reputation for individualism. Although the Hoklos continued to bind feet and wear queues even into the Japanese period, the Hakkas never followed the practice of foot-binding. Hakka women usually worked in the fields with their men; Hoklo women usually did not. The third group was and is small — made up of Cantonese, largely merchants, who settled principally in the south. The final wave of immigration was not to come until the end of the Japanese era in 1945. With Communist usurpation of the mainland, about a million and a half people reached Taiwan from all parts of continental China.

China's first serious interest in Taiwan was prompted by population pressures in Fukien and Kwangtung provinces, and also by the depredations of Japanese pirates along the south China coast, especially in the late 1400s and early 1500s. Some disaffected Chinese associated themselves with the buccaneers, who found lairs in Taiwan, the Penghus (Pescadores), and some of the islands just off the continental coast. Hakkas were among the first to strike out for Taiwan. The Yuan and Ming dynasties from time to time made desultory efforts to bring the Pescadores and Taiwan under direct control, but the early Chinese settlers were mostly on their own.

Dutch Conquest

When the Dutch arrived, they found the Chinese and aborigines struggling for the land. Other disputes involved Chinese and Japanese. Dutch conquest was not difficult. The Dutch had established themselves in Java at the end of the 16th century, and in 1622 they sent a fleet north to capture the Pescadores. From there Dutch military power and traders moved eastward to the area of present-day Tainan in southern Taiwan and established Fort Zeelandia and Fort Providentia, both of which are still standing.

The Spanish, who already held Luzon, just to the south of Taiwan, were quick to understand that the Dutch were outflanking them. In 1626 the Spanish established the settlement of San Salvador, on the site of Keelung, which now serves as Taipei's port, and San Domingo on the northwest coast at the site of present-day Tamsui. Even the modern Tamsui shows traces of the Spanish period. The British consulate property includes an old Spanish fort. Tamsui town reveals bits of Spanish architecture. The wooden shutters are reminiscent of Manila or Macao rather than a Chinese settlement. However, Spain's hold on northern Taiwan was even briefer than Holland's on the south. The Dutch considered the presence of the Spanish detrimental to their trade and drove them from the island in 1642.

Era of the Chengs

Thereafter the Dutch built other forts and brought 300 villages under their administration. Seven provinces were established. Gravius, the Dutch administrator, brought water buffaloes from the East Indies. Descendants of these huge, friendly beasts are still Taiwan's principal draft animals. Chinese immigrants grew rice and sugar cane on lands owned by the Dutch East India Company. Led by Candidius, Dutch missionaries sought-with some success — to convert the aborigines to Christianity. Churches were built. Attempts were made to romanize tribal languages. Pineapple and mangoes may have been introduced by the Dutch. Taiwan became a valuable Dutch way station in trade with Japan, China, and the East Indies. The Dutch, whose numbers on Taiwan never exceeded 2,000, established better relations with the aborigines than with the Chinese. One Chinese uprising was put down by the Dutch with the assistance of some 2,000 aborigines

In 40 years, the Dutch were never able to gain a secure hold on the island. So when Cheng Cheng-kung (Koxinga) came upon the scene, Dutch power was quickly broken. Except for forts and other structures, all signs of the Dutch era were quickly erased. Half Chinese and half Japanese, Cheng was the son of a trader-pirate who acquired a fleet of 3,000 vessels and a fortune. The elder Cheng fought with the fading Ming dynasty against the Manchus and was taken prisoner. Cheng Cheng-kung continued the battle. With his ships, he ravaged the mainland coast to a point where, in 1660, the, Manchu regime at Peking ordered evacuation of a seaboard zone three leagues wide and stretching from the mouth of the Yangtze to Canton. Cheng thereupon decided to transfer the base of his anti-Manchu operations to Taiwan. The Dutch called for reinforcement from Java, but none was forthcoming. Chinese of the island flocked to Cheng's standard. The Dutch gave up Fort Providentia without a struggle, then held out at Fort Zeelandia for nine months. The terms of surrender were generous for the times. The Dutch governor and most of the garrison and civilians were permitted to embark for Java, carrying with them their records, money, and movable property. This was in 1662. A year later, the Dutch dispatched a fleet to recapture Taiwan. Keelung was taken and held for two years, but the invaders were unable to extend their holdings, and finally gave up the port as not worth fighting for.

Cheng Chen-kung then looked south to the Philippines. He sent an envoy to Manila to demand annual tribute from the Spanish governor and to threaten attack in the event of refusal. The Spanish reply was a massacre of the Chinese in Manila. Cheng began preparations for an expedition to the south. Before his forces could move, he died, aged only 39. Power was inherited by his son, Cheng Ching. Under Cheng Ching's administration, many Ming adherents came to Taiwan from the mainland. Among them was a number of scholars, and the intellectual atmosphere of the island made rapid progress, as did agriculture and trade. However, Cheng Ching inherited the determination of his father to return to the mainland and restore the Mings. He exhausted his forces on vain assaults against the Manchus. After his death in 1682, his son lacked sufficient military strength to withstand Manchu assault. Admiral Sze Lang took the Pescadores in 1683 and then overthrew the last Cheng ruler of Taiwan and ended all hope of Ming restoration. Taiwan was back under mainland Chinese suzerainty and control.

Under Manchu Rule

Under the Manchus, Taiwan became a prefecture of Taiwan province. The capital remained at Tainan, then called Taiwan, and the name Taiwan was applied to the whole island. For the next two centuries, population and prosperity grew at a steady pace. At the same time the island remained of interest to several Western countries. One reason for this was the frequency of shipwrecks, which so often were followed by massacre of the crews by aborigines. Americans and British were among the principal sufferers. Another reason was Taiwan's strategic location. At first the British cast covetous eyes on the island. Their mounting Far Eastern trade required a base-but this need was satisfied with the acquisition of Hongkong in 1841. Then the Americans had similar thoughts. Commodore Perry, who first opened Japan to Western trade, visited Taiwan in 1854. Peter Parker, U.S. Commissioner to China, and Townsend Harris, first American envoy to Japan, both recommended that the United States acquire at least a part of Taiwan. However, Secretary of State Marcy rejected the suggestions. English and American businessmen began to establish themselves in Taiwan in the mid-1800s, and several ports were opened to trade during this period.

Japanese Attack

In 1871, a Ryukyuan vessel was wrecked on the southern coast of Taiwan and 54 members of the crew were murdered by aborigines. The Japanese complained to Peking, but the Manchu government declined to accept responsibility. The Japanese sent an expedition to southern Taiwan in 1874 and fought some inconclusive engagements with the natives. Finally, Peking decided to negotiate, and the ensuing agreement provided relief payments to survivors of the massacred men and a payment to the Japanese government for roads and buildings constructed by the expeditionary force. The Manchu government also agreed to protect foreign seamen from attack by the inhabitants of Taiwan.

In 1884, with the Franco-Chinese war nearing an end, the French sent an expedition to seize Taiwan as a guarantee for payment of an indemnity. The French first seized Keelung, and then bombarded Tamsui, blockaded the coast, and took the Pescadores. On Taiwan, however, the Chinese resistance was stronger than had been expected, and the French made slow progress. They never gained control of all Taiwan, and in fact never penetrated far inland. The subsequent Franco-Chinese treaty provided for French evacuation.

MacKay has a moving chapter about the French invasion. In the wave of anti-Westernism that arose, several Christian churches were destroyed and the lives of missionaries threatened. However, after the French withdrawal, the Chinese commander paid an indemnity for the loss of the chapels. MacKay directed the construction of six new and much bigger ones. He quotes the "heathens" as saying: "Look now, the chapel towers above our temple. It is larger than the one we destroyed. If we touch this one he will build another and a bigger one. We cannot stop the barbarian missionary."

The French attack called Manchu attention to Taiwan's strategic importance. In 1885 the island was separated from Fukien and became China's smallest full-fledged province. The capital was moved to Taipei. A telegraph line, begun in 1877, was extended from Tainan to Taipei, and the island was lined to the mainland by cable. One of China's first railroads was that between Keelung and Taipei, and tracks were pushing on southward when the island came into the hands of the Japanese as a spoil of war.

Five-Month Resistance

On March 26, 1895, during the course of the Sino-Japanese War, the forces of the Rising Sun Empire took the Pescadores. The conflict came to end with the Treaty of Shimonoseki, which ceded both Taiwan and the Pescadores to Japan. The Chinese of the island determined to resist the cession. A memorial to Peking said the people would establish an independent republic under China's suzerainty. Disturbances swept the island. Both Great Britain and Germany sent warships to protect their nationals. When Japanese transports reached Keelung with the troops of occupation, a Chinese army of 50,000 had been organized and was waiting to dispute the Japanese advance. The first Japanese landing was of 12,000 men. Keelung was occupied and Chinese morale slumped. Resistance was slight in Taipei. The Japanese advanced from the capital to Hsinchu in 11 days. At that point the islanders changed to guerrilla tactics and the invaders found the going harder.

General Liu Yung-fu, who had commanded the Chinese against the French, reorganized defense forces in southern Taiwan, and subsequently was elected president of a short-lived republic. It took the Japanese nearly five months to break the back of organized resistance. Guerrilla warfare with both Chinese and aborigines never entirely ceased during the 50-year Japanese period. Between 1907 and 1928, the Japanese ruthlessly suppressed four armed revolts by Chinese patriots.

Japan's hold on Taiwan was tight. The Governor General was a virtual dictator. Japanese residents were a privileged class. Chinese residents were hounded and watched by a cruelly efficient police force.

With the coming of World War II, it became obvious why the Japanese had been so intent upon having Taiwan. They themselves noted that the island made "invaluable contributions toward the southward movement of the Imperial Army and Navy". Labor was conscripted. However, the Japanese did not make widespread use of Chinese manpower for combat service. They were afraid to. Taiwan became a vital naval and air base. It was a staging point for the movement of men and materials to the south. Many airfields were constructed, especially in southern Taiwan, and it was from these that the Japanese flew out to bomb Clark Field and other U.S. positions in the Philippines. Taiwan's ports provided haven for convoys and lairs for submarines. Toward the end of the war, as American airpower gained the upper hand, Taiwan was heavily bombed.

However, the island escaped ground fighting. One American plan called for the seizure of Taiwan before the Philippines campaign, but this was abandoned as impractical. With air attacks neutralizing Taiwan, the Americans decided to bypass it in favor of Okinawa. When the biggest Ryukyu island fell on June 21, 1945, there was no longer any necessity for contemplating an invasion of Taiwan.

In September of 1945, the administration of Taiwan was returned to China. Taiwan had come full circle. Events since then are a part of contemporary history and will not be dealt with here. It is interesting, though, that in the years after 1945, the Chinese picked up where Cheng Cheng-kung left off in the 1660s and where the Chinese people of the island had stood in 1895 with the coming of the Japanese. Cheng made Taiwan a base from which to combat aggression. If he had lived and returned to the mainland, the whole history of China might have been drastically different. The Chinese of 1895 already had made Taiwan into what was considered to be the model province of China. The prosperity of today had its beginnings in the 19th century and earlier, and not under Japan. The Japanese sought to exploit Taiwan's riches, yet failed to elicit more than a fraction of the wealth that has been developed by a free people working in a free economy.

As model province for the reconstruction of the mainland, and as the base from which to get there, Taiwan's greatest moments of history are yet to be written.