With these touching sentiments, widely read through many Chinese generations, the Tang Dynasty poet Po Chu-yi (772-846) cherished a one-time encounter with a down-and-out lady musician.
"Reaching" very little, these lines put us now in mind of Halley's Comet—an intrinsically old friend of mankind, but one which makes our direct acquaintance for but a passing moment in each lifetime: Cycling past Earth only every 76 years, though it has returned many times over the millennia, we may meet it but once. The Chinese have reason to be most familiar with it.
Though it was not until Edmund Halley (1656-1742) calculated the earth cycle of the comet that the world came to recognize that the cumulative "they" in ancient records was an "it" (and gave it his name), Joseph Needham (1900- ) gives credit for the continuous observations which made final identification of Halley's Comet possible, to the astronomers of ancient China.
"That it can be followed back so far is due to the careful way in which the Chinese observations were recorded," declares Needham, in his monumental Science and Civilization in China.
There is excellent evidence for his conclusion. To begin with, the Chinese started keeping astronomical records almost with the beginning of their written history.
Comets, mysterious and unexpected intruders into the heavenly canopy of the ancient world, especially impressed startled observers. And by 1910, there were over 500 listings of comet appearances in Chinese historical records.
As for Halley's Comet itself, the earliest Occidental record (of the Comet's 12 B.C. visit) is in Cassius Dio Cocceianus's Roman History. But firm Chinese historical records trace it back to 240 B.C., and other Chinese evidences go back even earlier, to 1057 B.C.
During the campaign of King Wu against the tyrant Chou at the close of the Shang Dynasty (about 1057 B.C.), a comet appeared with its tail in the east, symbolizing King Wu's sweep against the Shang troops in the West. So writes Liu An of the early Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-24 A.D.) in his Huai Nan Tzu, a book on philosophy. Chen Wan-nai of the National Palace Museum in Taipei believes this reference is to sightings of Halley's Comet.
Chen also points out records of three other possible early sightings of Halley's Comet, before 240 B.C.:
- In the nineteenth year of King Chao of the Chou Dynasty (948 B.C.), a comet entered Tzuwei (a Chinese astronomical division including the constellations Ursa Minor, Camelopardalis, Ursa Major, Draco, Cepheus, and Bootes).-The Bamboo Chronicle (an anonymous chronicle of the Period of Spring and Autumn, 722-484 B.C., unearthed during the Tsin Dynasty, 265-420 A.D.).
- Autumn, the seventh month of the fourteenth year of Duke Wen of Lu State (613 B.C.); A comet appeared in Peitou (the Big Dipper). - The Spring and Autumn Annals (by Confucius, of the Period of Spring and Autumn, 722-484 B.C.).
- In the seventh year of Duke Likong of Chin State (470 B.C.), a comet appeared. - Historical Records (by Ssuma Chien of the early Han Dynasty, about second to first Century B.C.).
Though lacking precise time and track data, and thus substantially less authoritative for modern astronomers than the more detailed, continuous records kept since 240 B.C., the most ancient sightings are, at least, of very high reference value.
The Chinese of old maintained so high an interest in astronomy because of the enduring Chinese belief that the relationship between heaven, earth, and man is coherent: that celestial phenomena could reflect human affairs, and human affairs influence celestial phenomena. Astronomical phenomena were, therefore, noted concerns, especially of national leaders. Ssuma Chien of the Han Dynasty makes much of this in his immortal Historical Records:
Fixed-star chart by astronomer Wang Ying-ming, Ming Dynasty (1368-1644).
Since the beginning of human history, haven't all rulers had experience of the movements of the sun, the moon, and the stars? But not until the reigns of the Five Emperors (Huang Ti, Kao Yang, Kao Hsin, Tang Yu, and Yao Shun) and the Three Dynasties (Hsia, Shang, and Chou) have its rulers carried on the tradition of dividing the territory of the Middle Kingdom (China) into 12 states. Lifting their heads, the rulers observed the phenomena in the heavens; bowing, they applied the heavenly laws they had observed to the land.
1n the heavens, there are the sun and the moon; and so on the earth, there are the yin (negative force) and the yang (positive force). In the heavens there are the five stars (Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, and Saturn); and so on the earth, there are the five elements (metal, wood, water, fire, and earth). The heavenly realm consists of states corresponding to those of the nation; and the three luminants (the sun, moon, and stars) are the quintessence of the yin and the yang, their spirit being on the earth. All these things are under the dominion of the sages.
Ssuma Chien compiled a "Book of Heaven" in his Historical Records, in which were recorded spectacular events affecting the sun, moon, and stars. This format was carried on by Chinese historiographers of later generations. Thus China became advanced, in its organization of astronomical records, among the peoples of the ancient world.
Among those records of appearances of Halley's Comet that have gained international scientific recognition, the earliest belongs to Ssuma Chien: in his chapter on Chin Shih Huang (first Emperor of Chin, 246-214 B.C.) in Historical Records, he writes:
In the seventh year (240 B.C.), a comet initially appeared in the east, then in the north, and finally in the west, during the fifth month of the year.
Following this notation, every reappearance of Halley's Comet in its 76-year cycle was recorded in Chinese texts.
"That these early astronomers did not miss a single sighting since 240 B.C. is literally fantastic," comments Feng Pon-nine, himself a distinguished contemporary meteorologist, "especially since Halley's Comet is not always visible within certain latitudes."
Continuity is not the sole contribution of the old records, which are also celebrated for their detail and accuracy. According to Feng, the German astronomer Johann Muller (1436-1476) was, belatedly, the first European to take note of comet travels among the constellations:
"Writers of Western astronomical history have probably long wondered why nobody in Europe before Muller was scientifically curious about all this.
"Far before Muller, marvelous Chinese records included a description of the 12 B.C. cycle of Halley's Comet-in Pan Ku's (32-92 A.D.) History of the Han Dynasty, which recorded in detail the travel of the comet through Peiho (Castor), Hsuanyuan (Regulus), Taihuo (Antares), Tai-chiao (Arcturus), Tienshih (including the constellations Hercules, Ophiuchus, Serpens, Aquila, and Corona Borealis), etc.
"These observations were carried on for at least two months, since the comet appeared in August 26 of that year. With this data, modern astronomers can easily plot the Halley's Comet route of 12 B.C. on today's star charts."
Modern technology has now accommodated us with the knowledge that a comet appears as a fuzzy head, its nebulous coma surrounding a nucleus. And when their orbits near our sun, influenced by the solar wind and radiation, such comas often develop long tails pointed away from the sun. But not all comets have such splendid tails. Some very short-cycle comets cannot develop a tail because of the exhausting evaporation loss resulting from their more frequent encounters with the sun.
The Chinese observed the phenomena affecting comets' tails as early as 1,300 years ago. In the "Astronomical Records" section of The History of the Tsin Dynasty, Li Chun-feng (602-670 A.D., a famous Tang Dynasty astronomer) writes:
The body of a comet does not shine itself. It shines by the light of the sun. As seen in the night, its tail points to the east. Seen in the morning, its tail points to the west. And seen to the south or north of the sun, its tail always points in the direction o} the radiation of sunlight.
Though unable to accurately explain the cause, he was the first to record the observation that comet tails always point away from the sun. About 900 years later, in 1538, Italian astronomer Girolamo Fracastoro (1483-1553) recorded the same observation, as did German astronomer Peter Apian (1501-1552), in 1540.
Li Chun-feng defined the Chinese appellation "broom-like star" as a comet with a tail. As for that without a tail, he classified it as a kind of comet that "shines with radiation. "
A later silk copy of Divinations in Astronomy and Meteorology, (an ancient book of about 430 B.C.) recently unearthed in Changsha, Hunan Province, on the Chinese mainland, provides (in its fourth part) various delicately illustrated comet shapes. The original edition is attributed to the Period of Warring States, the copy to the early Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-24 A.D.). The illustrations are of eighteen comets with three different nucleuses and four different tails, crystallizations of very careful and frequent observations.
The sweeping tail of the comet is especially mysterious. Ancient peoples were frightened by tailed comets streaking across the sky, and spontaneously regarded them as omens of disaster: the death of the emperor, or the advent of war, drought, famine, or flood. The ancient Jewish people viewed the 66 A.D. appearance of Halley's Comet as a harbinger of the fall of Jerusalem (which occurred four years later). The famous 1066 A.D. sighting so familiar in British history was quickly linked by the contemporary English with the Norman Conquest and the death of the English King.
In ancient China, the appearance of a comet was sometimes interpreted as a timely warning from heaven, signaling the emperor of the need to reform a flawed national administration before impending calamities overwhelmed him.
Fan Yeh of the early Southern Dynasties (420-589) explains in his History of the Later Han that the term hui hsing (comet) was powerfully manipulated as a pun-chu hui pu hsing (discarding the abominable, establishing the new).
The Old Tang History (edited by Liu Hsu during the Epoch of the Five Dynasties, 907-959 A.D.) offers another interpretation of the meaning of comets:
The "celestial projector" at the Taipei Observatory planetarium.
In the eighth month of the eighth year of Chen Kuan (title of the 627-649 A.D. reign of Emperor Taitsung, Tang Dynasty), a comet (not Halley's) appeared and remained in view for eleven days. Emperor Taitsung hurriedly questioned his courtiers concerning the nature of this "evil spirit. " Yu Shih-nan, a courtier famous for his wisdom and virtue, responded: "I have heard that if the Emperor does not rule benevolently, even if very rare auspicious animals such as the chi lin (unicorn) and the phoenix appear for a time, that they will bring with them no bounty for the state. However, if the Emperor's rule is blameless, what harm can result from an evil omen? I hope Your Majesty will not succumb to arrogance because of your unprecedented merits and achievements, nor relax your efforts because of the long years of peace and prosperity. Clearly, the comet is of no concern. " The Emperor completely agreed.
Feng Ming-chu (of the National Palace Museum), looking through various works of Chinese history, found emperors of different dynasties responding to appearances of Halley's Comet in varied ways, some of them quite intriguing:
Emperor Wentsung (Kai Cheng) of the Tang Dynasty was, perhaps, the Chinese ruler most disturbed by the comet. In the second moon of the second year of his reign (837 A.D.), Halley's Comet appeared in the east, with a tail reported to be three chih (a chih is equivalent to a degree) wide and two chang (a chang is equivalent to ten degrees) long.
Emperor Wentsung, frightened, dismissed forty eight royal entertainers, sending them home.
At the beginning of the third moon, with the comet still there-and its tail now extended to five chang-the Emperor announced cancellation of the luxurious Chuchiang feast (a banquet for those passing the Imperial civil ser vice examinations, staged on the banks of the splendid Chuchiang Lake in Shensi Province).
Unfortunately for the court, on the very night the order was given, the tail of the comet extended to six chang. And in response, the normal diet of the palace was reduced by a tenth.
When the tail later ranged over eight chang, the Emperor pardoned prisoners and disbanded the royal band. And he, himself, moved out of the main hall of the palace.
Luckily then, Halley's Comet finally disappeared.
According to The Old Tang History, during the second to fourth years of the reign of Kai Cheng, comets appeared annually. Finally, in the fourth moon of the fourth year, a terrible drought took place. After praying formally several times for the end of the drought, without any positive heavenly response, the anxious Emperor proclaimed his own imminent abdication if rain did not fall within three days. And the result? History keeps us guessing about the drought... but the Emperor retained his throne.
During the Sung Dynasty (960-1279), the emperors' responses to the appearances of comets became almost routine. Each time Halley's Comet appeared, history records, the emperor of the time moved out of the main hall of the palace, reduced the royal court's normal diet, granted amnesties, dispatched special missions to inspect the application of justice over the country, or had local governments suggest policies to better serve the populace.
Above, left to right—As depleted by Hsu Kuang-chi: a Ming Dynasty telescope, an instrument to measure distances between stars, a theodolite; from the book: calculations to chart Halley's on the compass, and the armillary sphere.
On the comet's 1222 A.D. appearance, Emperor Ningtsung also proclaimed a general pardon, but proceeded to change the title of his reign from Chia Ting to Yuan Kuang ( The First Light), initiating a "new style."
During the Ming (1368-1644) and Ching (1644-1911) Dynasties, in accordance with tradition, courtiers would take the opportunities of the appearances of comets to submit their advice to the emperors. Generally speaking, though, the emperors no longer showed special concern, probably since people had begun to suspect the impeccable credibility of astrological divinations.
Ching Dynasty Emperor Kanghsi (1662-1722) was the only Ching emperor to notably react to the appearance of Halley's Comet. An expert on astronomy, the Emperor personally joined in Chinese scientific observations of the 1682 appearance of the comet (coincidentally with Halley himself. But he then ordered his courtiers to submit memorials advising on due administrative renovations. "Since a comet has appeared in the sky, there must be something wrong in our national government," he proclaimed.
All kinds of memorials were submitted. Some suggested reinducting demobilized soldiers; others urged reductions of military staffs, cutting taxes, adding government posts, and many more. The Emperor barely acknowledged Minister Liang Ching-piau's suggestion—that everything be kept as it was since the times were both prosperous and peaceful.
Finally, Emperor Kanghsi issued an edict for circulation among government officials, declaring that he had long noted the functioning of an undue privilege within government practice which harmed political discipline. He asserted that he had originally expected, following appearance of the comet, that his courtiers would identify the problems and offer solutions. But now, he stated, he was sharply disappointed to find that their suggestions, rather than remedies, were obvious sources of more maladies and corrupt practices.
The "modem" 20th Century records two visits from Halley's Comet. Still, in 1910 Halley's was again considered by vast multitudes to be an omen of disasters.
Scientists calculated that the tail of the comet, supposedly rich in very toxic cyanogens, would pass the orbit of the earth on May 18, 1910. And the whole world went into panic. In Paris, people indulged in desperate revelries, enjoying the "last days before the end of the world." Australian authorities advised citizens of Sydney to stay at home and tightly close their doors and windows. Japanese tried to learn how to temporarily hold their breaths. And gas masks as well as all kinds of anti-comet pills sold extremely well in many regions.
But in our day, instead of with fear, the world has welcomed Halley's Comet with excitement and anticipation. In the Republic of China, telescopes have been excellent sellers since the latter half of 1985, as lectures and symposiums on Halley's Comet have proliferated throughout the country.
A Halley's Comet Club was formed by the Taipei Observatory to offer the latest data (and send souvenirs to its members). Fifty thousand attended the observatory's introductory film of Halley's Comet within the single month of December last year, according to Director Tsai Chang-hsien.
And now, at low-latitude Kenting, at the very southern tip of Taiwan island, throngs of local tourists, as well as visitors from Japan and Korea, looking southeastward, search the eternal heavens for that intimate old friend of China, returning once more, like clockwork, to be entered in China's age-old memory.