In the Chou Dynasty (1122-1249 B.C.), the Taoist Master Lao Tze, whose original name was Li Erh, was knowledgeable of the official academy and inherited the beliefs of Huang Ti, or the Yellow Emperor (ca. 2698-2598 B.C.). Lao Tze worshipped nature, shaped and cultivated all objects in line with human nature, and developed the virtues to form a unity with heaven. He championed the idea that "the way" is the essence of the universe and the source of all objects.
Lao Tze's beliefs transcended the worldly, advocated virtues and renounced violence. He was ranked together with Huang Ti by his followers, and their beliefs became jointly known as "Huang-Lao theories." Their beliefs were later followed and amplified by the philosopher Chuang Chou. Gradually, the Taoist School itself split into the Huang-Lao Sect and the Fang Hsien Sect. The latter emphasized learning the way to be immortal.
In the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220 A.D.), a Taoist believer named Chang Tao-ling plunged into learning Taoist theories and practices on Hu Ming Mountain. Chang established shrines, religious hierarchies, and ceremonies in observance of the prehistoric ways of worshipping the mountains and nature itself. He became a leader in constructing a church system and regulating disciples, and thereby built up a denomination. He formally named it Taoism and began active preaching.
It was not until another Taoist, Chang Heng, who preached at Lung Hu Mountain in Kiangsi Province, that the Taoist religion spread south of the Yangtze River. At the same time, a Tai Ping Sect, led by Yu Chi, also became popular.
In the following period of the Wei (220-264) and Tsin (265-420) Dynasties, many people became disillusioned and depressed because of the social atmosphere of cruelty and treachery prevalent at the time. More and more people turned to Lao-Chuang beliefs, and Taoism gradually began to grow in popularity. Concomitant with this expanding influence, more publications and tracts were written to interpret Taoist beliefs.
Believers personally throw a pair of wooden "bei" to learn the gods' answers to Yes and No questions.
The ruling family name of the emperors of the Tang Dynasty (618-906) was Li, the same as Lao Tze's original surname. The religion was therefore particularly favored by the emperors. More and more shrines and temples were established, and government officials were named as chiefs of the monasteries. Many princesses became Taoist nuns, and governors often had religious services before they assumed government posts. During the years of Emperor Hsuantsung, the Chung Hsuan Research Center was set up to study Taoism. The government administered tests and granted theology doctoral degrees. The examination scriptures included the Tao Teh Ching by Lao Tze, the Nan Hua Ching by Chuang Chou, and scriptures by Wen Tze and Lieh Tze.
In the following Sung Dynasty (960-1276), Taoism schools were established—open to women and children as well as men. But their primary function was to prepare men for the Taoist examinations, tests that covered various Taoist scriptures.
Later, when the Mongols invaded China, many people in north and south China took shelter in Taoist temples to escape slaughter. The Taoist yellow capes were seen almost on every Chinese. The Ilan race was thus not annihilated. Those who had served in the Sung Dynasty government were exonerated if they escaped into Taoist monasteries, and civilians who became Taoists paid no taxes and avoided other levies.
The overthrow of Sung Dynasty and the establishment of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1643) was bolstered by the Red Bands, a side sect of Taoism. The founder of the Ming Dynasty, Chu Yuan-chang, understood that Taoist churches preached cherishing nature and the belief that only virtue can guide people in a changing universe. Although concerned about the power of the church, he decided that a coercive rule could not keep the religion under control. Thus, after Chu came into power, he claimed to worship Taoism but actually restricted its activities to religious ceremonies without linkage to the state. The restrictions on the church brought a pivotal change of course for Taoism.
Temples are busy day and night, as worship is personal except for special festivals.
In the last Chinese dynasty of Ching (1644-1911), the Manchurians realized that Taoism was tied with nationalism and sought to force the church into total decline. Thus, due to lack of official support, Taoism remained popular only with the masses where people still worshipped their ancestors and deities with traditional Taoist ways. But the true meaning of Taoist practice became obscure, and some jobless people pretended to be Taoist priests in order to solicit favors from innocent people. This prompted intense criticism from academic circles.
Taoism has obviously been closely tied to the history of Chinese philosophy, to changing political beliefs, and to the rise and fall of dynasties. Its beliefs have concentrated on the philosophy and creeds documented in the major scriptures, and it advocates obeying heaven, worshipping ancestors, admiring virtue, and realizing retribution. Taoists believe that only by quiescence can one reach a unity of the self with nature. Through this, one can embrace heaven's virtue and reach the goal of immortality.
Worshippers chant Taoist canons from classical texts.
Taoist religion is polytheistic. The supreme gods are called the Three Pure Ones (San Ching). In the next echelons there are the Five Old Ones, the Four Polar Ones, Jade Emperor, the Three Official Ones, Old Lady Tou, and Queen Wang Mu. All are high-level deities. Believers also worship the stars, mountains, rivers, the land, and heroes. A unique feature of the Taoist creed is the worshipping of deities alongside the believers' ancestors.
Through the ages the sects of Taoism have multiplied and diversified, until today they can be classified into five major denominations. One is called Chi Shan (good conduct), which urges people to pile up good deeds as virtue and to worship the gods and ancestors in order to reach immortality. The second is Ching Tien (classics), which places emphasis on studying the scriptures. The third is Fu Lu (Charms and Talismans), where the Taoist priests are capable of drawing diagrams and practicing crafts that facilitate communication with spirits. The fourth is called Chan Yen (prognosis), which stresses ways of giving prophesies and of interpreting mysteries. The fifth denomination is Tan Ting (alchemy), which teaches disciples ways of making rare materials.
There are huge collections of Taoist scriptures, large portions of which are written in languages hard to construe. They are classified by their functions into three groups: one elaborates on the philosophy of masters, another is used to decipher mysteries, and the third explicates matters of theology. The present "orthodox" scriptures total 5,485 scrolls, and are a valuable source of Chinese culture.
A major Taoist religious ceremony is known as Chai Chiao, or by its other name of Ko Yi. Chai means the practice of transcending a ghost into another generation, and Chiao is a service to worship god. Other ceremonies are too numerous to list.
Festival decorations keep alive such classic Chinese folk arts as lantern making.
In daily life, Taoist believers should "control desire to nourish energy, eat less to nourish vapor, and sleep well to cultivate spirit" in order to get hold of the secret of immortality.
Taoist religion inherited and adapted the ancient ideas of philosophical Taoism. Over the centuries it has cultivated Chinese of many customs. During the Tang Dynasty, its influence reached other Asian countries as China's strength dominated the area, and Taoist influences can still be found in some Asian countries.
Compared to other religions, Taoism has the largest number of believers in Taiwan. There are more than 7,000 Taoist temples, and these are augmented by countless family Taoist shrines. The number of public Taoist buildings exceeds that of all other religions. There are also many overseas Chinese Taoist believers.
On mainland China, Taoist constructions were almost totally destroyed during the so-called Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. In recent years there has been limited reconstruction, but most buildings were rebuilt in an attempt to dupe the rest of the world into thinking that there was religious openness on the mainland rather than to give places for genuine worshippers to meet. In actuality there is little comparison between the Taoism in Taiwan and what is found across the Straits.
Currently the Taoist church in Taiwan is considering the establishment of a Taoist college to encourage further research in religious Taoism, and to cope with world interests and trends in this research field. There is also planning underway to hold an International Taoism Research Convention in Taipei next May. Many renowned foreign scholars on Taoism will be invited to expound on Taoist theories. It is hoped that through such activities this ancient religion can even outshine its historical brilliance and benefit people everywhere. —(Mr. Kao Chung-hsin is chairman of the China Taoists Association).