Taiwan Today

The Great Sage Is Supposed To Idealize the Past. But The Test of His Teachings Lies in the Future. It Is There Man Will Inherit the Earth or lose Out to Evil

In terms of the number of people influenced, Confucianism is the most important philosophy in the world. It has been synonymous with the Chinese way of life for more than 2,000 years and also is deeply imbedded in the cultures of Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. Try as they may, the Communists have been able to make only the smallest dent in the Confucian manner of thinking. Mao's "great proletarian cultural revolution" is aimed at Confucianism as well as at the revisionists.

Great philosophies of the West have been changed almost beyond recognition with the passing of time. Plata and Aristotle echo only faintly in Existentialism. In its deepest essentials, Confucianism has changed very little. Having expressed what seemed to be the eternal verities, Confucianism has stuck to them — modifying practice without weakening ideals.

This greatest philosophy of the Orient stems from the teachings of Kung Fu-tzu, or Master Kung, whose name has been Latinized as Confucius. He was born in the small feudal state of Lu in what now is Shantung province in 551 B.C. His forbears probably were members of the lesser aristocracy. By the time of his birth the family was impoverished and without power or influence. His father died when he was only 3, leaving him to struggle for his education and place in life.

After holding a succession of petty jobs, Confucius rose to become prime minister of Lu at 55. This success was short-lived. Rulers of Lu and of the neighboring states through which he wandered for years ignored his counsel. He failed in his attempt to bring peace and order to his age. Yet he succeeded in fastening his ideas on those who began to follow him through the countryside. Confucius is said to have had some 3,000 students, of whom 72 can be called disciples. In his old age he returned to Lu, supposedly to edit what have come to be known as the Confucian Classics. He died at 72.

Time of Anarchy

Confucius lived in a time of feudalistic anarchy. China was divided into a number of states that quarreled incessantly and often fought each other. Lu was a conservative state in which the traditions of the early Chou dynasty were preserved. So Confucius was able to look back to the founders of the dynasty, to King Wen and the Duke of Chou, for examples of what rulers should be, for the ways in which rulers and the ruled should conduct themselves so as to produce order and harmony. This was not reaction, as is sometimes maintained. In Confucius' time, a democratic concept was out of the question. China lacked the roots that produced the Greek city-states. Yet Confucius did go forward in his insistence on a virtuous ruler to be rewarded by his virtuousness — a wise and just leader not so different from the philosopher-king of Plato's Republic.

Confucianism is not a religion. For a man who lived at a time when superstition dominated much of man's conduct, Confucius was remarkably free of concern about supernatural powers. He might have called on all sorts of deities to witness and support his positions. Instead, he was humanist and rationalist. To him the natural order had to be moral. This provided its own reward for all men, the high and the low, the ruler and the ruled.

However, he did emphasize rites and ritual music. Although the precise meaning of some of his teachings has been lost, his intent is clear. He wanted men to have a proper place, something to hang onto, and he understood this required a definite and concrete ordering of their lives. This is what Confucian ritual really means. In part it can be compared with the Mass of the Roman Catholic Church, but as a humanistic rather than a theological expression. Ritual is important among all peoples. In the 20th century, psychologists and sociologists attribute many societal breakdowns to the fact that the rites of life — those of youth and marriage and death — have lost their meaning and their hold on people. Confucius found this was also the case in his own time.

Importance of Rites

In Confucianist definition, rites express man's proper place in society, provide a structural framework for the social order, and assure each individual of spiritual satisfactions. Man without rites was a barbarian who lived in anarchy. The rites may not always have been understood, yet their performance remained important. Rites also involved one's relations with others, an aspect to be discussed subsequently in more detail.

Confucius' closest approach to democracy is found in his attitude toward education. Only the educated should rule but education is to be open to all on a basis of ability and moral dedication. Education will produce the elite of the state. Man is perfectable not because man is good but because he is able to learn; he can be educated and made into the superior person that is Confucius' chun tzu or gentleman. As a gentleman, he is above vanity and avarice.

Confucianism is largely based on the Five Classics and Four Books, although many commentaries also have been influential. Possibly Confucius himself did not write or edit and of this material, but he almost certainly used some of it in teaching.

The Five Classics are:

Shih Ching or the Book of Odes. It is also known as the Book of Songs or the Book of Poetry. The collection totals 305 pieces and supposedly was chosen from more than 3,000. The odes date to the period of 1000 to 700 B.C. and are of mixed subject matter: love poems, political anthems, ritual hymns. Lengths vary. Meter, rhythm, and rhyme patterns are strict and reveal a sophisticated literary tradition at a time when most of the world was ruled by barbarians. This was several hundred years before the flowering of Greek culture.

Li Chi or the Book of Rites, also known as the Record of Rituals. This is a compilation made in the second century B.C. and is supposed to include the government system and rites of the early Chou dynasty.

Shu Ching or the Book of History and also called the Book of Documents. Included are documents and speeches from the early Chou period. However, some of this material was forged at a later time. The origins of this book have been in controversy for more than 2,000 years.

Chun Chiu or Spring and Autumn Annals, a record of events at the court of the state of Lu between 722 and 481 B.C. This is the only one of the Five Classics attributed — perhaps erroneously — to Confucius' authorship. Philosophical significance has been placed on the choice of words.

I Ching or the Book of Changes, also known as the Book of Divination. The divination is built on a system of eight trigrams and sixty-four hexagrams. Popular omens and other auguries are included.

A sixth Classic, the Book of Music, has been lost. That is regrettable, because Confucius attached greater importance to music than any other great philosopher.

Four Books

The Four Books are more recent than the classics. They are the Lun Yu or Analects of Confucius, conversations between the sage and his disciples as recorded by the latter; the Ta Hsueh (The Great Learning) and Chung Yung (The Golden Mean), actually two chapters from the Book of Rites; and Mencius, which collects the sayings of the great spokesman for Confucianism. Mencius lived nearly two hundred years after Confucius.

Confucianism was not laid down as a system. Men have tried and failed to make it so. Yet it might be said that if men lived by the teachings of Confucius, or even by what others say Confucius taught, this would be a perfect world — and not unlike that Jesus Christ tried to make.

Love of Humanity

The content of Confucianist philosophy may be summarized under a few headings.

The first and most important is jen, which must be translated and explained in several ways. Confucius was advancing a concept much like Jesus Christ's "God is love". Jen is love of humanity; it is also moral sensibility, goodness, benevolence, perfect virtue, and humanitarianism. Confucius told his disciples to "Love men". He described the five virtues as courtesy, magnanimity, good faith, diligence, and kindness toward men. He said: "He who is courteous is not humiliated, he who is magnanimous wins the multitude, he who is of good faith is trusted by the people, he who is diligent attains his objective, and he who is kind can get service from the people." All men seek after riches and honors, but they must not be attained at the sacrifice of jen. Nothing in life is worthwhile without jen, without respect for and the respect of one's fellow men. When jen fails, so does man's capacity to endure adversity and enjoy prosperity. The supreme virtue is love of humanity both individually and collectively. Without this love, man is nothing. This is not any remote ideal. It is of the here and now, to be practiced every day. If a gentleman - a man of goodwill — departs from the principle of jen, he has lost the right to call himself a gentleman, he is scarcely even a man.

The second tenet is shu, by which he meant both tolerance and reciprocity. Confucius said: "Do not do to others what you would not want others to do to you." This version of the Golden Rule has sometimes been adversely criticized because it is couched in the negative. Christians are wont to point out that Christ said "Do unto others". However, the criticism takes the Confucian directive out of context. When Confucian tolerance and reciprocity are combined with the positivism of jen, the result is no less exalted than the ethical and moral system implied by Jesus. Confucius said: "The humane man (the man of jen or love), desiring to be established himself, seeks to establish others; desiring himself to succeed, he helps others to succeed. To judge others by what one knows of oneself is the method of achieving humanity." At the same time, Confucius' tolerance and reciprocity were those of humanism and not of the gods. His disdain for metaphysics is indicated in these words: "It is man that can make the Way great, not the Way that can make man great." Man is to be the measure of man. He is perfectable only through his own efforts.

Filial Piety

A third concept fundamental to Confucianism is that of filial piety, although this must not be regarded as the abject obedience to a father image that was suggested in later time. Confucian filial piety is more than honoring and obeying mothers and fathers. If love and respect is not developed in the home — and this includes the love and respect of brothers and sisters — how can a well-ordered, peaceful society be attained. Confucius also had in mind that obedience to the father would engender obedience to the ruler. However, his intent was not so much authoritarian as anti-anarchical. The context of the times must not be forgotten; he was creating rules to combat the chaos into which China had fallen. Confucius said: "In serving his parents, a son may gently remonstrate with them. If he sees that they are not inclined to follow his suggestions, he should resume his reverential attitude but not abandon his purpose."

Confucius wanted more from filial piety than the satisfaction of the daily wants of elders. He said: "Nowadays a filial son is a man who keeps his parents in food. But even dogs and horses are given food. If there is no feeling of reverence, wherein lies the difference?" He implies that the ruler must be respected as well as served. How else to assure order in the state? The opening chapter of The Great Learning declares:

"The ancients who wished to preserve the fresh or clear character of the people of the world would first set about regulating their family life. Those who wished to regulate their family would first set about cultivating their personal life. Those who wished to cultivate their personal lives would first set about setting their hearts right. Those who wished to set their hearts right would first set about making their wills sincere."

Confucius' chun tzu is usually translated as "gentleman". But his meaning is much broader than the usual semantic picture of a "gentlemen". The chun tzu is a man of goodwill and moral principle who loves learning and the service of others, who is convinced that virtue is its own reward, who is contemptuous of wealth and luxury. Confucius said: "The gentleman makes demands on himself; the inferior man makes demands on others." He also said: "The gentleman occupies himself with the Way and not with his livelihood. One may attend to farming and yet may sometimes go hungry. One may attend to learning and yet may not be rewarded with emolument. What the gentleman is anxious about is the Way and not poverty." The chun tzu became the ideal of the Chinese government service. Although the goal of such perfection was seldom reached, that does not detract from the greatness of Confucius' concept. The sage himself was one of history's finest gentlemen. His life reflected another of his aphorisms: "to practice what you preach and then preach what you practice".

Good Government:

Good government was attainable, Confucius said, through the upright ruler. If the ruler is upright, "all will go well without orders. If he is not, his orders will not be obeyed". He summed up his philosophy of government in saying: "Lead the people by laws and regulate them by penalties, and the people will try to keep out of jail, but will have no sense of shame. Lead the people by virtue and restrain them by the rules of decorum, and the people will have a sense of shame, and moreover will become good." What is the test of good government? Confucius said a government is good when those living under it are happy and those not living under it want to be. He also observed that a government needs the confidence of the people, food, and troops in that order. Troops and food should be given up before the people's trust, because "death is the lot of all men, but a people without faith cannot survive". He said: "Let the prince be prince, the minister be minister, the father father, and son son." He meant not only that men must have their place but must faithfully fulfill their obligations.

Confucius reasoned that the earth had enough troubles for man and suggested metaphysics might be left to Heaven. He was asked about ghosts and spirits, and said:

"We don't know how to serve men. How can we know about serving the spirits?" As for death, he said: "We don't yet know about life. How can we know about death?" He urged that man give attention to his own kind. The gods might be respected, "but keep them at a distance — this may be called wisdom". One of the disciples told the ailing Confucius that prayers were being offered for him. "Is there such a thing?" Confucius asked. He told his disciples he wished he did not have to speak. "Look at Heaven there," he said. "Does it speak? The four seasons run their course and all things are produced. Does Heaven speak?" But he was agnostic and not an atheist. "To each his due" was at the core of his belief. Who could be sure of what Heaven was or who occupied it? In his time this was hard to accept. As one of the disciples said, "The Master's views on culture and refinement we can comprehend. But his discourses about man's nature and the ways of Heaven none of us can comprehend."

More Than Ritual

The term li (rites) used by Confucius meant more than ritualistic observances, although he did attach much importance to ceremonials. His li also included "good form", "decorum", "courtesy", "etiquette", "rules of good conduct" — the whole complex of defining proper conduct within a given set of circumstances. He did not insist upon a rigid system; respect for others was more important than any rigid observance of ritual. He said: "Courtesy without decorum becomes tiresome. Cautiousness without decorum becomes timidity, daring becomes insubordination, frankness becomes effrontery." Another time he said: "Rites, rites! Does it mean no more than jades and silks? Music, music! Does it mean no more than bells and drums?" He said rites should be simple rather than lavish. "In funeral rites, it is more important to have the real sentiment of sorrow than minute attention to observances." To a disciple who wanted to do away with the sacrifice of a lamb, he said:

"You love the lamb, but I love the rite!"

Always Humble

Confucius had great faith in learning and education, yet he was always humble, always willing to admit how little he knew. Of himself he said: "I am a transmitter and not a creator. I believe in and have a passion for the ancients." He detested bias, arbitrary judgments, obstinacy, and egotism. He said: "Those who know the truth are not up to those who love it; those who love the truth are not up to those who delight in it." He taught that men are pretty much alike, and that it is learning and practice that set them apart. He observed, "In education there are no class distinctions." And, "The young are to be respected. How do we know that the next generation will not measure up to the present one? But if a man has reached forty or fifty and nothing has been heard of him, then I grant that he is not worthy of respect." He had no interest in trying to teach anyone not eager to learn, and said: "Learning without thinking is labor lost; thinking without learning is perilous." What is knowledge? This was Confucius' answer: "When you know a thing, say that you know it; when you do not know a thing, admit that you do not know it. That is knowledge."

What, then, is the essence of Confucianism?

Summed up in a sentence: The way to a well-ordered world in which men occupy the places they have earned and deserve, and treat each other with kindness and respect. Of course, no philosophy can be expressed in a sentence. Still unanswered today is the burning question of how such a world can be brought into existence and preserved. Although he never despaired, Confucius admitted himself frustrated on that point. He preached and his disciples listened. A few of them even practiced what he and they preached. But the world of Lu and its neighboring states paid scant attention. A few rulers were interested until they discovered that Confucius wanted them to rise above their appetites for power and wealth, and turn their talents to the service of the people.

Nevertheless, within a few hundred years after Confucius' death, his philosophy was fixed upon China with stronger cement than that of the Buddhist religion that was imported from India. Not all educated men may be good or even useful, but for two millennia education has been regarded in China as one of the greatest goods and ultimate answers. Filial piety has sometimes been misused by tyrannical parents and rulers. Yet through centuries of Chinese history it has shown itself to be one of the most effective means of social control that man ever developed.

Residual Rights

Confucius taught respect for the ruler. But he also insisted that the philosopher-king be a man of supreme virtue and actually the servant of the people. It cannot be said that Confucius suggested the right of revolution against an unjust king in the same positive sense that John Locke did. However, Confucius did imply that the people have residual rights, rights which the Chinese people have exercised again and again when bad rulers oppressed them too harshly.

Chinese hospitality and politeness also are a part of Confucian philosophy. The sage once said there is nothing quite so pleasurable as greeting friends who come from afar. He was a friendly man and he helped to make the Chinese one of the friendliest peoples in the world. This has been a heavy cross for the Communists to bear. Recent defectors from Communism have told of Peiping's difficulties in getting the Red Guards to abuse people. Many young people have run away and refused to act in ways so antithetical to Confucius' teachings. For 18 years the Communists have held Confucianism up to ridicule and have sought to denigrate Confucius. His tomb has been desecrated during the "great proletarian cultural revolution".

Two thousand five hundred years of a powerful philosophy cannot be brainwashed from the mind of a people in half a generation. In time to come the world will learn that Confucianism has not been eradicated on the mainland and that, to the contrary, its tenets are still burning strongly in the hearts of 700 million Chinese people. In the meantime, the island province of Taiwan continues to be the repository of Confucianist ideas and ideals.

Suggested by President Chiang Kai-shek and now under way is a cultural renaissance that answers the violence of the Communist "cultural revolution" with Confucianist patience and dedication to virtue. The new Confucianism does not differ from the old in its idealism. The philosophy of China's wisest wise man does not require that kind of change. What the renaissance seeks is a practice in closer accord with what Confucius taught and practiced himself. The old Confucianism helped build one of the world's greatest cultures and civilizations, and a state that worked out many admirable relationships with neighbors.

The test of Confucianism as a philosophy and way of life lie in the future, not the past. As Confucius said, "If you begin by setting yourself right, who will dare to deviate from the right?" Not only China but all the world may ask: Who has ever found a better prospect for man?