The most important part of this legacy is books, because books record human thought and action and reveal the growth and spirit of a country's culture.
In this context, and not as curios of antiquity, the value of rare Chinese books is truly priceless.
Written records existed in ancient China long before the word shu came into use, in the sense of "book," in the early years of the Warring Kingdoms (402-221 B. C.).
They were in the form of tablets cut from bamboo or other kinds of seasoned wood. Coming in lengths of 17.64, 8.82 and 5.88 inches, the tablets were called chien. Each chien bears one line of usually from 8 to 40 characters, as in literary writings, and have as many as 17 lines, as in official documents and letters.
A number of chien fastened together with a leather or silk cord, more or less in the form of a book as known in modern times, is called tze, which in its original usage was one of the names for book.
Another sort of material in which ancient writings were recorded is called po, an archaic Chinese word for silk. The, regular size of a piece of po was about 23 feet and 8 inches by 1 foot and 4.17 inches, the length being adjusted as desired. If the writing occupied less than a whole bolt of silk, the rest of the piece was cut off for future use.
Some people assume that as early as the Yin dynasty (1401-1122 B. C.) this clothing material began to be used as paper, but this is unsubstantiated. So far as we can be positive, the added use had its heyday in the early years of the Warring Kingdoms. However, the high price and inadequate supply of silk in those days made it far less used than bamboo slats.
Today, in Taiwan, there are 30 pieces of chien kept at the National Central Library and a smaller number at the Institute of History and Philology of the Academia Sinica, both in Taipei, and the National Palace and Central Museums in Taichung. Most of them, however, are made of wood, and all belong to the Han dynasty (202 B. C.-220 A. D.), a later time in the history of the chien books. These existing slats are official re cords of military activities and correspondence at the frontier and of personnel affairs. In some cases they were military passes.
This very scanty remnant of the vast legacy of ancient Chinese culture displays the same ravages of war and other losses that befell other ancient cultures. It has, however, gained an immortal life in the Chinese language. The word chien has been used to mean a letter, and tze a volume (of a book). And when a Chinese writes "put in bamboo and silk," he means exactly what the Englishman does by "put it in black and white." The Chinese phrase, however, might inspire in the informed reader a wistful yearning for the good old days, as "put it in black and white" never does.
Invention of Paper
In the year of 105 A. D., during the reign of Emperor Ho of the East (or later) Han dynasty (25 B. C.-220 A. D.), the invention of paper by an official named Tsai Lun ushered in a new epoch in Chinese culture.
It was not long before this handy material for writing took over the place of bamboo and silk. By the closing years of the Han dynasty, paper had gained universal preference. This was clearly shown in a much-quoted literary anecdote. Early in the West Chin dynasty (265-313 A. D.), the distinguished writer Tso Ssu produced his "Fu1 to Three Capitals" after 10 years of arduous authorship. This masterpiece evoked such a fanatic demand by the public for paper to copy and recopy it that the price soared in Loyang, then capital of China.
Part of a Buddhist sutra dating from 420-589 A.D. (File photo)
Paper writing at first appeared much in the same form as on the old silk rolls. A great number of paper rolls of Buddhist sutras have been discovered in the Tunhuang Caves in northwest China. The dates cover a long period extending from the Division Between North and South (42-589) down to the Five Dynasties (907-960). A hundred and fifty-three of such rolls are kept by the Central Library. The bulk of the rest, like many of the rare books and other treasures of ancient Chinese culture, have in one way or another fallen into foreign hands.
Ancient Origin
It may be interesting to note that in the Chinese language a lot of commonly used words and expressions originate from ancient times. But this is not generally realized even by many well educated Chinese. A couple of instances pertaining to the old paper rolls might be of interest. Most of the scrolls are yellow in color, as a result of the use of a certain yellow dye called huang nien for protection against bookworms. This process was called chuang huang, from which the modern usage "decoration" is derived.
Again, people in those days used tze huang (yellow ochre, akin to realgar) in proofreading much in the same way as the modern man uses correction fluid in stencils. Now, a high official named Wang Yen in the Chin dynasty was fond of quoting classics in conversation, and out of carelessness or ignorance he often made wrong references. He was then lampooned by his contemporaries as hsin kou tzu huang, meaning "orally applying the yellow ochre in a free and irresponsible manner." This expression gained wide usage in the sense of "to criticize freely and irresponsibly" and is still often used today.
Improved Form
The inconvenience of the paper rolls and scrolls, which sometimes were tens of feet long, gave rise to an improved form much resembling the folded counting book formerly used in mainland shops. These folded papers were called yeh tzu (leaves) in the Tang dynasty (618-907) and tze tzu or hsuan jeng yeh (swirl leaves) in the Sung dynasty (960-1279). But this form probably did not appear until late in the Tang dynasty and was used exclusively for Buddhist sutras at the turn of the Sung dynasty.
Next came the hu tieh chuang (butterfly binding), which prevailed from the late Sung dynasty into the Yuan (Mongolian) dynasty (1260-1368). The binding was so designated because when a volume is opened the leaves spread in such a way as to suggest the spreading of the wings of a butterfly. The special feature of this binding is the appearance of the book ridge, which gave the volume quite a modern look. But there is the shortcoming that the name of the book and the volume and page number are on the inner margins. To make up for this, many Sung books of this binding often bear on the upper margin the headline of the chapter or section, thus providing a convenient index.
Up to that time glue remained the only substance used in book binding. It was not until the pao pei chuang (binding with the book ridge covered), which was substituted for the butterfly binding, that books acquired a completely modern appearance. In this new style of binding, the name of the book and the volume and page number are removed to the outward margin and threads or paper spills are used. Books so bound closely resemble their Western counterparts of modern times.
After the middle part of the Ming dynasty (1368-1659), Chinese book binding underwent another and final change before it was westernized. Featuring this type are the uncovered book ridge and the pierced binding with thread throughout both covers. This is called hsien chuang (thread binding), a binding which lasted longer than any other in Chinese history.
While books developed from paper rolls into the modem shape of the butterfly binding and the pao pei chuang, printing was also invented and made great strides both in art and technique. It may seem curious that although the carving of characters on tortoise shells and animal bones took place as early as the beginning of recorded Chinese civilization some 32 centuries ago, printing from graved plates did not come about until the early Tang dynasty (the seventh century).
However, once this new invention was developed, it did not take long to bloom. Within half a century, printing shops emerged in various places throughout China proper and books thus produced covered a wide scope—anthologies of poems, Buddhist sutras, calendars, philological books, dictionaries and many others. Two of the books printed in the Tang dynasty still exist. One is a copy of the Vajra-prajnaparaita Sutra, published by a man named Wang Chieh in the year 868. The other is a calendar privately printed by a man called Mao Shang of the prefecture of Chengtu, now capital of Szechuan province. These two oldest of existing Chinese books, both discovered in the Tunhuang Caves, are now kept by the British Museum in London. The Central Library has a photogravured copy.
Starting from the succeeding Five Dynasties, the government joined and played a bigger role in the printing industry. But it is the Sung dynasty, which followed, that is considered the golden age of book printing in China. Crowned with the invention of movable type somewhere between 1041 and 1048, Sung printing covered in quantity all the four categories of books—the Confucian classics, history books, the works of the pre-Chin dynasty (221-206 B. C.) philosophers and literary collections. In quality it reached a level unmatched before or since. This consummate achievement in the art of presswork has endeared above all things to the connoisseur a genuine Sung book.
Another distinguished feature of the Sung editions is the painstaking philological work and proofreading the printers contributed to the preservation of ancient culture. This explains and justifies why those paper products have been regarded in modern times as more precious than the most precious stones.
In sharp contrast to the meticulous care exercised by the Sung people in printing was the devastating negligence of printers in the Ming dynasty. Still and far worse was the free hand the Ming printers played in abridging and even changing the text of ancient works and the misguided elaboration lavished in imitation of Sung prints. It was complained long ago that "with the advent of the Ming prints, books no longer existed."
It is unfair, however, to heap the blame on all Ming printers, for the havoc thus wrought upon ancient books did not begin until late in the dynasty, nor did it stop when the dynasty ended. Before the middle part of the 16th century, there were also a lot of gems in the Ming editions, and later they fell victim to the advanced skill in forgery and alteration made by both printers and booksellers.
It was due to the chaos in book printing after the late Ming dynasty that the products of the Sung and Yuan dynasties became the last resort of scholars in tracing the true face of China's ancient civilization. In fact, much of the modern verification work has become possible only as a result of the discovery of such ancient publications. Viewed in this perspective, it is indeed regrettable that despite the abundant production of yore, those treasures of ancient Chinese civilization should now be associated with the word "rare."
Richest Collection
Today, the Central Library still keeps 121,375 volumes of 11,756 rare books, which is by far the richest collection in free China. The collection includes printed books of various editions, paper rolls, manuscripts, handwritten copies of ancient editions and books proofread and bearing notations by famous scholars and connoisseurs. Some of them are the existing ku pen (sole copies) of their kind.
The oldest is a copy of the Tarani Sutra printed in the Five Dynasties. This was excavated in 1929, along with many other copies, near the Leifeng Pagoda at Hangchow, capital of Chekiang province.
Next in antiquity is an incomplete North Sung dynasty (960-1126) edition Han Shu (Han History) by the celebrated historian Pan Ku (33-92) in the East Han dynasty. This is probably the only existing copy.
Sole Copies
Other sole copies of immense value include the following:
The Nan Sung Chun Hsien Hsiao Chi of the South Sung dynasty (1127-1279) edition. This is a collection of the works of more than 60 poets in that dynasty and is asserted to be the only existing copy.
The Tzu Chih Tung Chien of the South Sung dynasty edition, The book is a very important record of Chinese history by Ssu Ma-kuang (1019-1086), an eminent prime minister and scholar in the North Sung dynasty.
The Hsin Pien Hsuan Ho I Shih (Revised Anecdotes of the Period of Hsuan Ho) of the South Sung dynasty edition. This is a famous chaptered novel telling about the events of the same period (1119- 25) under the reign of Emperor Hui Tsung of the North Sung dynasty. On material from this book is based the widely read Shui Hu or Water Margin, better known to the West as All Men Are Brothers.
The Sung dynasty edition Wu Tai Shih Ping Hua, a novel based on historical events in the Five Dynasties.
These last two are not only the sole copies but also the earliest editions.
The Hsin Tiao Yun Chai Kuang Lu of the Kin dynasty edition. The book, written by a man named Li Hsien-min in the Sung dynasty, is a collection of anecdotes about officials and scholars.
One volume of the Yuan dynasty edition Vajra-prajnaparaita Sutra, published between 1341-67. The book was printed in red and black color, marking a splendid milestone in China's printing history.
Pi Pa Chi (The Story of A Chinese Guitar), an early Ming dynasty edition. Written by an official named Kao Ming in that period, the book is a famous novel in the form of an operatic drama.
There are also 150 different books revised and remarked by Huang Pei-lieh, one of the few great authorities in this field in the Manchu (Ching) dynasty (1644-1911).
Among the manuscripts, the most valuable are some seven or eight volumes of The Great Yung Lo Library the diary of Chao Lieh-wen, and the complete works of Weng Fang-kang, noted connoisseur and critic of fine arts in the early Ching dynasty.
Chao was on the staff of Tseng Kuo-fang (1811-72), distinguished scholar-general-statesman in the Ching dynasty, who put down the Taiping Rebellion (1850-64). As a staff member in Tseng's army, Chao had much to record in his diary, and it is in this connection that the diary is considered of historical value.
Compiled during the first six years of the period of Yung Lo (1403-24) under the mandate of Emperor Cheng Tsu, the Yung Lo Library rounded up almost all the Chinese books existing in that time in a total of 12,000 volumes of manuscripts, excellent in both calligraphy and binding. During 1562-67, two sets of copies were made, also in manuscript form. The original set was lost in a fire in 1797; and various losses, among which the heaviest was caused by the ravage of Peiping by the Eight Allied Armies in 1900 after the Boxer Uprising, had reduced the two sets of copies to only 60 volumes in government possession by the early days of the Republic. It is estimated that the existing volumes, both in China and abroad, number only a little more than 200.
So much for the Central Library collection. Next in quantity come the collections of the library of Academia Sinica's Institute of History and Philology, which contains close to 20,000 volumes of rare books. The following sole copies are among the best known:
The first page of the South Sung edition of Chuang Tzu (File photo)
The Shih Chi (Historical Records) of the North Sung dynasty edition. The book is the earliest comprehensive history of China and an immortal masterpiece of its kind. It is also admired for its literary value. The author is Ssu Ma-chien (145-86 B. C.), one of China's foremost and earliest historians, who lived in the West Han dynasty. This copy is recognized as the oldest existing edition of the book.
The South Sung dynasty edition Chuang Tzu, a collection of the works of Chuang Chou, one of the foremost philosophers during the period of the Warring Kingdoms.
Three anthologies of Tang poets: the Pi Yun Chi by Li Chung, the Chun Yu Chi by Li Chun Yu and the Pi Sha Chi by Li Hsien-yung. All three copies are South Sung dynasty editions.
Museum Collection
The National Palace and Central Museums also keep a number of rare books. The most famous sole copies include:
A Sung dynasty edition eight-line-print Lun Yu Chu Shu (Annotations on Confucian Analects) by Hsing Fin, scholar and high official of the North Sung dynasty.
An early South Sung edition of the Prose Works of Liu Yu-hsi (File photo)
A Sung dynasty edition Prose Works of Liu Yu-hsi a celebrated poet in the Tang dynasty.
A Yuan dynasty edition Yuan Tien Chang a book on the government systems of the dynasty.
A Yuan edition I Chow Shu a book about ancient history written in pre-Chin (dynasty) times.
The museums also possess more than 36,000 volumes of Sze Ku Chuan Shu, (The Comprehensive Collection of the Four Categories of Books). This was a Yunglo style task on an even larger scale. It took 10 years (1772-82) to finish it, during the reign of Emperor Kao Tsung of the Ching dynasty. The total number was 79,339 volumes of 3,460 different books, all compiled in manuscripts. Later on, six sets of copies were made and stocked in different places. Still they did not escape the fate of losses and destructions, and the existing copies were mostly added in the closing years of the dynasty.
Apart from the collections of the three institutes mentioned there are also a number of rare books kept in the main library of the National Taiwan University and other public libraries in Taiwan.
Such is a glimpse of the legacy of ancient Chinese civilization embodied in books. Chinese scholars, old and young, are devoting a lifetime of untiring study to these books. Foreigners have also come from afar for the same purpose. These men and women have been trying to dig out more human wisdom from this Oriental culture, which is recognized as on a par both in antiquity and in richness with the Hellenic civilization of the West.
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1. A fu is a piece of prose in somewhat poetic form which originated as early as the period of the Warring Kingdoms and reached its consummation in the Han dynasty.